Programmable radio transceiver

ABSTRACT

A fully integrated, programmable mixed-signal radio transceiver comprising a radio frequency integrated circuit (RFIC) which is frequency and protocol agnostic with digital inputs and outputs, the radio transceiver being programmable and configurable for multiple radio frequency bands and standards and being capable of connecting to many networks and service providers. The RFIC includes a tunable resonant circuit that includes a transmission line having an inductance, a plurality of switchable capacitors configured to be switched into and out of the tunable resonant circuit in response to a first control signal, and at least one variable capacitor that can be varied in response to a second control signal, wherein a center resonant frequency of the resonant circuit is electronically tunable responsive to the first and second control signals that control a first capacitance value of the plurality of switchable capacitors and a second capacitance value of the at least one variable capacitor.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) to U.S.Provisional Application No. 60/543,418 filed Feb. 10, 2004, which isherein incorporated by reference in its entirety. This application alsoclaims priority under 35 U.S.C. § 119(a) to Taiwanese Applicationentitled “Programmable Radio Transceiver” filed February 2005 which inturn claims priority to the above-identified U.S. ProvisionalApplication No. 60/543,418.

1. FIELD OF INVENTION

The present invention is directed to a programmable radio transceiverincluding a resonant LC circuit, a wideband programmable localoscillator and a built-in control module.

2. DISCUSSION OF RELATED ART

Wireless communications continues to grow at unprecedented rates. Today,there are over 1 billion mobile wireless devices worldwide. There aremultiple frequency bands and communications standards/protocols forcellular, wide area, local area networks, public safety and militarycommunications throughout the world that make ubiquitous communicationsdifficult at best.

The demand for individual devices to use combinations of these convergedservices is growing rapidly (TAM is expected to exceed $3B by 2006).Many semiconductor and equipment companies, recognizing this growingmarket need, have turned to exotic, expensive materials such asSilicon-Germanium (SiGe) or microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) toachieve better performance, multi-feature integrated circuits. Othershave turned to high power-consuming techniques such as high frequencysampling to create solutions.

Presently, to build a subscriber device that can address more than twofrequency bands and different protocols has been costly and physicallylarge. Most device manufacturers have tried by putting two differentchipsets down on a single medium. In particular, one current designincludes, for example, the Nokia D211 WLAN & GPRS PCMCIA card. This carduses both a multi-chip chipset for the WLAN portion and aSTMicroelectronics chipset for the GPRS functionality. This methodologyis costly, large and in-flexible.

An obstacle in the design of high-density, wideband, tunable integratedcircuits in the GHz range is the need to provide resonant circuits withlow losses that can be tuned over a wide frequency range. The presentstate of the art relies on circuits including inductors made from themetal layers in the semiconductor fabrication of application specificintegrated circuits (ASICs) and system-on-chip (SoC) devices that can bemodified in such a way as to form flat geometries of rectangular orspiral type of structures that store magnetic energy. These devices arecalled spiral inductors. The amount of inductance of such a device isdetermined by the number of turns and their physical size with respectto the chip area. Unfortunately one drawback to these types of inductorimplementations is the inability to scale with technology node size(which defines parameters such as device gate length). In fact, as thenode size in analog CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor)technology is migrating toward gate lengths of 130 nm and below, thephysical dimensions of inductive elements remain essentially the same,thereby impeding the reduction in total chip area. Additional problemsassociated with spiral inductors include their tendency to createconductor losses (resulting in low quality factor tuning circuits), toinduce radiation and to induce electromagnetic field diffusion (eddycurrent) effects in the substrate.

There have been attempts made to construct LC resonant circuits withbondwires, as discussed for example in U.S. Pat. No. 6,806,785 to Traub,issued Oct. 19, 2004. The '785 patent discloses the use of a bond wireto form an inductor that is part of a narrowband oscillator circuit,describing the oscillator circuit as including voltage-variablecapacitances, bondwire inductors, and a de-attenuation amplifier.

A fundamental building block in many telecommunications transceivercircuits is a frequency synthesizer. The purpose of the frequencysynthesizer is to produce the required harmonic signals for frequencyup-conversion in the transmitter and frequency down-conversion in thereceiver. Frequency synthesis allows the generation of adjustablefrequencies in small, accurate steps (e.g., 200 kHz for GSM, 1.728 MHzfor DECT (digital enhanced cordless telephone), and the like) that aresubsequently used in a mixer to enable band and channel selection.

The present state-of-the-art in frequency synthesis relies on eitherinteger-N or fractional-N architectures realized in a phase lock loop(PLL) circuit having a phase detector, a low-pass filter, and aprogrammable divider in the feedback loop. One example of a conventionalfrequency synthesis circuit including a PLL with a programmable divisionfactor frequency divider, a phase comparator with filters, a referencefrequency oscillator and a reference divider is described in GermanPatent DE10131091 to D. Gapski, issued Jul. 18, 2002. Another example ofa frequency synthesizer including a multiband frequency generatorcoupled to a multiple VCO configuration oscillator is described in U.S.Pat. No. 6,785,525 to Ries, issued Aug. 31, 2004. An example of dualfrequency synthesis for communication and signal strength monitoring isdescribed in GB2254971 to W. Torbjorn, published Oct. 12, 1992. Inaddition, several examples of direct digital frequency synthesis aredescribed in U.S. Patent Application 2004264547 to Hinrichs et al,published Dec. 30, 2004, U.S. Patent Application 2004176045 to Frank,published Sep. 9, 2004, and European Patent EP0409127 to WatanabeNozomu, published Jan. 23, 1991.

However, the prior art is unsuitable for deployment in a singlemulti-band, multi-standard transceiver where space, cost, and widebandfrequency operation is at a premium, for reasons such as inflexible,narrow-band frequency tuning capability and high component countimplementation.

SUMMARY OF INVENTION

In view of the disadvantages present in the prior art, it wouldtherefore be desirable to design and implement an RFIC that does notinclude spiral inductors and has a local oscillator that is capable ofwide-band tuning so as to service multiple frequency bands. In addition,it may be desirable to incorporate in the RFIC a built-in test andevaluation module that may provide in situ monitoring of parameters ofthe RFIC and is capable of dynamically adjusting parameters of the RFICto comply with multiple telecommunication standards.

Aspects and embodiments of the present invention are directed to aprogrammable mixed-signal radio transceiver comprising a low cost radiofrequency integrated circuit (RFIC), which is frequency and protocolagnostic. Embodiments of the RFIC provide a fully integrated radiotransceiver with digital inputs and outputs that is programmable andconfigurable for multiple radio frequency bands and standards and thatis capable of connecting to many networks, service providers orstandards.

According to one embodiment, a tunable resonant circuit fabricated in asemiconductor integrated circuit comprises at least one transmissionline having an inductance, a plurality of switchable capacitorsconfigured to be switched into and out of the tunable resonant circuitin response to a first control signal, and at least one variablecapacitor that can be varied in response to a second control signal,wherein a center resonant frequency of the resonant circuit iselectronically tunable responsive to the first and second controlsignals that control a first capacitance value of the plurality ofswitchable capacitors and a second capacitance value of the at least onevariable capacitor.

In one example, the transmission line comprises a bondwire thatinterconnects the integrated circuit and a lead frame. Alternatively,the transmission line may be a microstrip line or coplanar waveguideline. The plurality of fixed capacitors may be, for example, metal oxidesemiconductor MOS capacitors or metal-insulator-metal (MIM) capacitors.In another example, the resonant circuit may further comprise a switchnetwork coupled to the plurality of switchable capacitors, the switchnetwork being operable, responsive to the first control signal, toswitch in and out any of the switchable capacitors to tune the firstcapacitive value to provide a selected range of the resonance frequency.The variable capacitor may be, for example, a varactor diode and thesecond capacitance value may be controlled by adjusting a bias voltageof the varactor diode responsive to the second control signal. Theresonant circuit may be coupled to, for example, a voltage controlledoscillator (VCO) to control a tuning range of the VCO. In anotherexample, the resonant circuit may be coupled to low noise amplifier(LNA) circuit and a reactance of the resonant circuit may be tuned so asto cancel a reactance of the low noise amplifier and match an inputimpedance of the low noise amplifier to a particular load impedance.

According to another embodiment, a method of tuning a resonant circuitover a plurality of frequency bands and within one frequency band of theplurality of frequency bands, the method comprises providing aninductance, providing a first capacitance value in parallel with theinductance from a plurality of switchable capacitors in response to afirst control signal to tune the resonant circuit the one frequencyband, and providing a second capacitance value in parallel with theinductance in response to a second control signal to tune the resonantcircuit within the one frequency band.

In one example, providing the first capacitance value may includesswitching in and out of the resonant circuit any of the switchablecapacitors so as to obtain the first capacitance value. In anotherexample, the second capacitance value may be provided by a varactordiode and providing the second capacitance may include varying a biasvoltage of the varactor diode responsive to the second control signal.In another example, the method may include a step of controlling atuning range of a voltage controlled oscillator by coupling the resonantcircuit to the voltage controlled oscillator. In another example, themethod may include a step of matching an input impedance of a low noiseamplifier to a load by coupling the resonant circuit to the low noiseamplifier, and tuning a reactance of the resonant circuit so as tobalance a reactance of the low noise amplifier and match an inputimpedance of the low noise amplifier to the load.

According to another embodiment, a frequency synthesizer implemented asa phase locked loop comprises a voltage controlled oscillator thatproduces a VCO frequency signal, a resonant circuit coupled to thevoltage controlled oscillator and adapted to adjust a tuning range ofthe voltage controlled oscillator, and a divider circuit coupled to thevoltage controlled oscillator and positioned in a forward loop path ofthe phase locked loop, the divider circuit being adapted to produce afrequency that is a divided version of the VCO frequency signal.

In one example, the phase locked loop may comprise a second dividercircuit positioned in a feedback path of the phase locked loop andadapted to provide a divided output signal, a phase detector coupled tothe second divider circuit and adapted to receive the divided outputsignal and produce a loop tuning signal, and a reference frequencysource coupled to the phase detector and adapted to produce a referencefrequency signal. The phase detector may be adapted to produce thetuning signal based on a comparison of the divided output signal and thereference frequency signal. In another example, the phase locked loopfurther comprises a mixer positioned in the forward loop path andadapted to receive the first frequency signal and the VCO frequencysignal and to produce an output signal, wherein the divided outputsignal is a divided version of the output signal. In one example, thereference frequency source may comprise a direct digital synthesizerincluding a reference crystal oscillator, and a reference centerfrequency of the reference frequency signal may be determined by acontrol signal received by the direct synthesizer from a microcontrollerthat is integrated in a semiconductor chip with the frequencysynthesizer. In addition, the a VCO center frequency of the VCOfrequency signal may be tuned based on a combination of the loop tuningsignal and the resonant tuning signal.

According to another example, the resonant circuit coupled to thefrequency synthesizer may be an LC resonant circuit comprising at leastone transmission line having an inductance, a plurality of switchablecapacitors configured to be switched into and out of the tunableresonant circuit in response to a first control signal, and at least onevariable capacitor that can be varied in response to a second controlsignal, wherein a center resonant frequency of the resonant circuit iselectronically tunable responsive to the first and second controlsignals that control a first capacitance value of the plurality ofswitchable capacitors and a second capacitance value of the at least onevariable capacitor. Furthermore, a resonant center frequency of theresonant tuning signal may be selected by controlling the firstcapacitance value such that a resonance of the resonant circuit fallswithin a selected frequency band, and by controlling the variablecapacitor to tune the resonant center frequency within the selectedfrequency band. The VCO center frequency may be within the selectedfrequency band.

According to another embodiment, a method of generating a localoscillator frequency signal using a phase-locked loop comprisesproviding a control signal to a voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) tocause the voltage controlled oscillator to produce a VCO frequencysignal, controlling a resonant circuit that is coupled to the voltagecontrolled oscillator to produce a resonant tuning signal, controlling atuning range of the voltage controlled oscillator with the resonanttuning signal, dividing the VCO frequency signal with a first dividercircuit positioned in a forward loop path of the phase-locked loop toproduce a first frequency signal, and mixing the first frequency signalwith the VCO frequency signal to generate the local oscillator frequencysignal.

In one example, the method may further comprise dividing the localoscillator frequency signal with a second divider circuit positioned ina feedback path of the phase-locked loop to produce a divided localoscillator frequency signal, generating a reference frequency signal,and comparing the divided local oscillator frequency signal with thereference frequency signal to produce a loop tuning signal. In anotherexample, the method may further comprise tuning a center frequency ofthe VCO frequency signal based on a combination of the loop tuningsignal and the resonant tuning signal. In a further example, theresonant circuit may comprise a parallel connected combination of aninductor, a plurality of switchable capacitors and at least one variablecapacitor, and controlling the resonant circuit to produce the resonanttuning signal may comprise switching into the resonant circuit selectedones of the plurality of switchable capacitors so as to select afrequency band for the resonant tuning signal, and tuning the at leastone variable capacitor so as to select for the resonant frequency signala center frequency within the frequency band. In one example, the atleast one variable capacitor may be a varactor diode and tuning the atleast one variable capacitor may include controlling a bias voltage ofthe at least one varactor diode. In addition, generating the referencefrequency signal may comprise controlling a direct digital synthesizerto produce the reference frequency signal having a reference centerfrequency determined in response to a reference control signal.

According to another embodiment, a method of tuning a wideband localoscillator may include providing an inductance, a first capacitancevalue and a second capacitance value, all connected in parallel, toprovide a resonant circuit, selecting the first capacitance value from aplurality of switchable capacitors in response to a first control signalto tune a resonant frequency signal of the resonant circuit to aselected frequency band, selecting the second capacitance value inresponse to a second control signal to tune the resonant frequencywithin the one frequency band, and coupling the resonant frequencysignal to a voltage controlled oscillator to tune the local oscillator.

According to another embodiment, a wideband local oscillator maycomprise a voltage controlled oscillator adapted to receive a resonanttuning signal and to generate a local oscillator signal, the localoscillator signal having a center frequency determined at least in partby the resonant tuning signal, a resonant circuit including an inductor,a first capacitance and a second capacitance all connected in parallel,the resonant circuit being coupled to the voltage controlled oscillatorand being adapted to generate the resonant tuning signal, the firstcapacitance comprising a plurality of switchable capacitors coupled toswitches that allow selected ones of the plurality of switchablecapacitors to be connected in the resonant circuit, responsive to acapacitor control signal, thereby determining a value of the firstcapacitance, the second capacitance comprising at least one varactordiode adapted to be tuned in response to a diode control signal todetermine a value of the second capacitance, and wherein a frequency theresonant tuning signal is determined based on the first capacitancevalue and the second capacitance value in combination with theinductance.

In one example of the wideband local oscillator, the plurality ofswitchable capacitors are configured such that by switching into theresonant circuit the selected ones of the plurality of switchablecapacitors, and the first capacitance value is controlled so as to tunethe frequency of the resonant tuning signal to one selected frequencyband of a plurality of frequency bands. In another example, the at leastone varactor diode may be configured such that tuning of a centerfrequency of the resonant frequency signal within the one selectedfrequency band is accomplished by adjusting the second capacitancevalue. In another example, controlling which selected ones of theplurality of switchable capacitors are connected into the resonantcircuit may allow selecting of different frequency bands of theplurality of frequency bands, so as to allow tuning of the resonanttuning signal over the plurality of frequency bands and within onefrequency band of the plurality of frequency bands.

According to another embodiment, there is provided an integratedevaluation and test module for a radio transceiver implemented on asemiconductor substrate, the radio transceiver comprising a receiverchain that generates a radio frequency signal, the integrated evaluationand test module being integrated on the semiconductor substrate with theradio transceiver. The evaluation and test module may include a controlinput adapted to receive a digital control signal, a signal inputadapted to receive a digitized version of the radio frequency signalfrom the receiver chain of the radio transceiver, a processing modulecoupled to the signal input and adapted to receive and process thedigitized version of the radio frequency signal from the receiver chainof the radio transceiver, and to provide a digital output signal, and areference generator adapted to generate a digital reference signal basedon information contained in the digital control signal. The evaluationand test module may further include a comparator coupled to thereference generator and to the processing module and adapted to receivethe digital output signal and the digital reference signal, thecomparator being configured to compare the digital output signal withthe digital reference signal and to generate an error signal thatidentifies discrepancies between the digital output signal and thedigital reference signal, and an adjustment module coupled to thecomparator and adapted to receive the error signal from the comparatorand to generate digital adjustment data, the adjustment module beingfurther adapted to provide the digital adjustment data to at least onecomponent of the receiver chain of the radio transceiver to adjust atleast one parameter of the at least one component so as to modify theradio frequency signal to reduce the error signal.

In one example, of the integrated evaluation and test module, theprocessing module may comprise a processor configured to perform aFourier transform on the digitized version of the radio frequency signalfrom the receiver chain of the radio transceiver to provide the digitaloutput signal comprising frequency domain information about the radiofrequency signal. In another example, the digital reference signal maycontain frequency domain information corresponding to desiredcharacteristics of the radio frequency signal. In another example, thecomparator may be configured to compare the frequency domain informationfrom the digital output signal with the frequency domain informationcontained in the digital reference signal and to generate the errorsignal which contains information about frequency domain variationsbetween the digital output signal and the digital reference signal. Inone example, the adjustment module includes a finite state machine.

According to another embodiment, a method of testing performance of atleast one component of a receiver chain for compliance with a selectedcommunication standard comprises receiving a digital control signal,receiving a digitized version of a radio frequency signal from thereceiver chain, processing the digitized version of the radio frequencysignal from the receiver chain to provide a digital output signal, andgenerating a digital reference signal based on information contained inthe digital control signal. The method further comprises comparing thedigital output signal with the digital reference signal, generating anerror signal based on the comparison that identifies discrepanciesbetween the digital output signal and the digital reference signal,generating digital adjustment data based on the error signal, andproviding digital adjustment data to the at least one component of thereceiver chain to adjust at least one parameter of the at least onecomponent so as to modify the radio frequency signal to reduce the errorsignal.

In one example, processing the digitized version of the radio frequencysignal includes performing a Fourier transform on the digitized versionof the radio frequency signal to provide the digital output signalcomprising frequency domain information about the radio frequencysignal. In another example, generating the digital reference signalincludes generating a digital reference signal containing frequencydomain information corresponding to desired characteristics of the radiofrequency signal. In a further example, comparing the digital outputsignal with the digital reference signal includes comparing thefrequency domain information from the digital output signal with thefrequency domain information contained in the digital reference signal,and generating the error signal includes generating an error signal thatcontains information about frequency domain variations between thedigital output signal and the digital reference signal.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

In the drawings, which are not intended to be drawn to scale, eachidentical or nearly identical component that is illustrated in variousfigures is represented by a like numeral. For purposes of clarity, notevery component may be labeled in every drawing. The drawings areprovided for the purposes of illustration and explanation and are notintended as a definition of the limits of the invention. In thedrawings:

FIG. 1 is a block diagram of one embodiment of an RFIC according toaspects of the invention;

FIG. 2 is a block diagram of one embodiment of an LC resonant circuitaccording to aspects of the invention;

FIG. 3 is a diagram illustrating a perspective view of one embodiment ofa bondwire inductor according to aspects of the invention;

FIG. 4 is a cross-sectional diagram of FIG. 3;

FIG. 5 is a circuit diagram illustrating one embodiment of a lumpedelement model of the distributed nature of the LC tank circuit depictedin the combination of FIGS. 2, 3 and 4;

FIG. 6 is a graph illustrating the general relationship of resonantfrequency as a function of bias voltage for the LC tank circuit of FIG.5, according to aspects of the invention;

FIG. 7 is a block diagram of one embodiment of a control circuit for aresonance circuits, according to aspects of the invention;

FIG. 8 is a block diagram illustrating coupling of an LC tank circuit toa semiconductor lead frame, according to aspects of the invention;

FIG. 9 is a graph illustrating input impedance as a function offrequency for one embodiment of a bondwire inductor, according toaspects of the invention;

FIG. 10 is a graph illustrating unloaded quality factor as a function offrequency for one embodiment of a bondwire inductor, according toaspects of the invention;

FIG. 11 is a circuit diagram model of one embodiment of an inductorformed of one or more bondwires, according to aspects of the invention;

FIG. 12 is a circuit diagram illustrating one example of impedancematching an LC tank circuit to a low noise amplifier, according toaspects of the invention;

FIG. 13 is a circuit diagram illustrating one embodiment of adifferential low noise amplifier employing bondwire inductors accordingto aspects of the invention;

FIG. 14 is a circuit diagram illustrating one embodiment of adifferential low noise amplifier employing bondwire inductors accordingto aspects of the invention;

FIG. 15 is a block diagram of another embodiment of a frequencysynthesizer according to aspects of the invention;

FIG. 16 is a block diagram of one embodiment of a direct digitalsynthesizer according to aspects of the invention;

FIG. 17 is a block diagram of one embodiment of a frequency synthesizerincluding a divide-by-N circuit according to aspects of the invention;

FIG. 18 is a block diagram of another embodiment of a frequencysynthesizer including a quadrature VCO and a divide-by-N circuit,according to aspects of the invention;

FIG. 19 a is a block diagram of one embodiment of a lower sidebandselection circuit according to aspects of the invention;

FIG. 19 b is a block diagram of one embodiment of an upper sidebandselection circuit according to aspects of the invention;

FIG. 20 is a block diagram of one embodiment of a cascade of multipledivide-by-N circuits according to aspects of the invention;

FIG. 21 is a graph illustrating local oscillator frequency tuning bandsfor different division ratios of one exemplary VCO, according to aspectsof the invention;

FIG. 22 is a graph illustrating local oscillator frequency tuning bandsfor different division ratios of another exemplary VCO, according toaspects of the invention;

FIG. 23 is a block diagram of one embodiment a receiver chain includinga built-in test and evaluation module according to aspects of theinvention;

FIG. 24 is a block diagram of one embodiment of a BITE module accordingto aspects of the invention;

FIG. 25 is an illustration of one example of a test input signalcomprising two tones, according to aspects of the invention;

FIG. 26 is an illustration of one example of an output signal from thereceiver chain based on the exemplary test input signal of FIG. 25;

FIG. 27 is a constellation diagram showing two desired constellationpoints and actually recorded constellation points;

FIG. 28 is a flow diagram illustrating one example of a process fortesting a transceiver according to aspects of the invention;

FIG. 29 is a circuit diagram of one embodiment of a gate switchingtechnique that can be used to vary gate width of a component such as anLNA;

FIG. 30 is a circuit diagram of one embodiment of a differential voltagecontrolled oscillator incorporating an LC tank circuit according toaspects of the invention;

FIG. 31 is one example of a circuit diagram of a resonant circuitaccording to aspects of the invention;

FIG. 32 is a circuit diagram of one embodiment of a switch that may beused with the circuit of FIG. 31 according to aspects of the invention;

FIG. 33 is a block diagram of one embodiment of a circuit that may beused to generate a test signal, according to aspects of the invention;

FIG. 34 is a block diagram of one example of a power control loopaccording to aspects of the invention;

FIG. 35 is a block diagram of one example of a means for generating amodulated test signal according to aspects of the invention;

FIG. 36 is a flow diagram illustrating one example of a method fortesting a transmitter chain of a radio transceiver according to aspectsof the invention; and

FIG. 37 is a block diagram of one embodiment of a built-in test andevaluation module being used to test a transmitter chain, according toaspects of the invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Various illustrative embodiments and aspects thereof will now bedescribed in detail with reference to the accompanying figures. It is tobe appreciated that this invention is not limited in its application tothe details of construction and the arrangement of components set forthin the following description or illustrated in the drawings. Theinvention is capable of other embodiments and of being practiced or ofbeing carried out in various implementations. Also, the phraseology andterminology used herein is for the purpose of description and should notbe regarded as limiting. The use of “including,” “comprising,” “having,”“containing,” “involving,” and variations thereof, herein is meant toencompass the items listed thereafter and equivalents thereof as well asadditional items.

Aspects and embodiments of the present invention are directed to aprogrammable mixed-signal radio transceiver comprising a low cost radiofrequency integrated circuit (RFIC), which is frequency and protocolagnostic. Embodiments of the RFIC provide a fully integrated radiotransceiver with digital inputs and outputs that is programmable andconfigurable for multiple radio frequency bands and standards and thatis capable of connecting to many networks, service providers orstandards. The RFIC may be used by device manufacturers to buildmulti-mode or single mode devices that are low cost and small in size.The RFIC can be used, for example, in laptops, smartphones, personaldigital assistant devices (PDAs), multi-media devices, public-safetyradios, machine-to-machine communications devices, etc. This device canbe used by, for example, IC solution providers or device designers andwill allow manufacturers to use a single low cost CMOS re-configurableRFIC to increase features while lowering the cost and complexity oftheir designs. For example, the RFIC may replace several chips fromvarious vendors, thereby reducing the size and cost of a radiotransceiver device.

The reconfigurable architecture of the RFIC, according to embodiments ofthe invention, is unique in its approach to solving the problem ofproviding multi-standard compatibility, frequency flexibility, andcustomization with a single-chip IC. For example, one approach canleverage the high performance and low cost of standard 130 nm bulk CMOStechnology and various aspects of the invention to allow for extremelyhigh levels of integration and small die size. The RFIC may integrate afull transceiver that operates from, for example, about 400 MHz to 6 GHzand can include, for example, frequency generation and synthesiscomponents, analog-to-digital converters, digital-to-analog convertersand digital filtering, as discussed in more detail below.

Referring to FIG. 1, there is illustrated a block diagram of oneembodiment of an RFIC according to aspects of the invention. As shown inFIG. 1, the RFIC 101 architecture comprises a configurable receiver 100,a configurable transmitter 102, a frequency synthesizer 104, a built-intest and evaluation (BITE) module 106 and an integrated microcontroller108 coupled together via a programming bus 110. In one embodiment, thefrequency synthesizer employs a wide band local oscillator architecturethat comprises a narrowband VCO combined with a programmable divider togenerate local oscillator signals for the radio transceiver, asdiscussed in detail below. Through the use of a process running on themicrocontroller 108, the programmable receiver 100 and programmabletransmitter 102 can be configured for center operating frequency anddynamic range, and a number of parameters can be programmed. Forexample, the programmable receiver 100 may be configured for selectivityand sensitivity and various receiver parameters such as input centerfrequency, power gain, noise figure, bandwidth, sampling rate, effectivenumber of bits (ENOB) and power consumption. Similarly, parameters ofthe programmable transmitter, such as input and output centerfrequencies, spurious output levels, noise, and dynamic range, may beconfigured by the microcontroller, as discussed in detail below. Themicrocontroller provides centralized control for the RFIC and may supplycontrol signals to control multiple system parameters, as discussedbelow. Operation of the desired configuration of the programmablereceiver and the programmable transmitter can be facilitated by the BITEmodule 106 implementing a closed-loop built in test and calibration. Inone embodiment, the BITE module 106 enables accurate switching of the RFanalog chain to different telecommunication standards as well as themonitoring and adjusting the circuit performance parameters, asdiscussed below.

The RFIC architecture can further comprise a programmable digitalinterface 112 coupled to the microcontroller 108 (and other components)via a digital bus 114. The programmable digital interface may becontrolled by the microcontroller and programmed for parameters such asnumber of I/Os, common mode level, signal level, clocking speed,polarity, signal content, etc. The RFIC can also include any or all of atunable low noise amplifier 116 and driver amplifier 118, ananalog-to-digital converter (ADC) 120 and digital-to-analog converter(DAC) 122, a digital baseband processor module 124, a memory device 126,a master impedance module 128 and a master clock 130.

According to one embodiment, the RFIC may further comprise aprogrammable antenna assembly 174 that is coupled to the programming bus110, the LNA 116 and the driver amplifier 118. The programmable antennaassembly may be adapted to receive RF signals (e.g., radio broadcasts,wireless phone or data signals, etc.) and to transmit RF signals. Theprogrammable antenna assembly 174 may include components such as aduplexer to allow simultaneous transmission and reception of RF signals,amplifiers, and band selection circuitry to allow the antenna assemblyto transmit and receive signals in an appropriate frequency band. Thesecomponents may be controlled by signals from the microcontroller via theprogramming bus.

The RFIC according to embodiments of the invention is a mixed signaldevice, that is, a device that inputs, outputs and processes both RFsignals and digital signals. To minimize noise generated by themicrocontroller, ADC, DAC, BITE module and other digital components,tri-state outputs may be used. Tri-state outputs are floating, highohmic impedance values in digital circuitry that essentially decouplethe output of a digital circuit from the input of the next stage. Thetri-state outputs present a high impedance to analog circuits such asthe RF portions of the RFIC. As a result, any digital signals (i.e.,state transitions from logic low to logic high or vice versa) areprevented from coupling to the analog circuits and causing noise in theanalog circuitry.

According to one embodiment, a radio transceiver device using the RFICof FIG. 1 may be provided having an architecture that eliminates orreduces the use of spiral inductors, thereby making the radiotransceiver more scalable with improving semiconductor technologies.Specifically, at least one embodiment includes a methodology and devicefor implementing a tunable resonant circuit over a wide bandwidth (forexample, 800 MHz to 2.5 GHz) using transmission lines, such as, forexample, bondwires, microstrip lines, or co-planar waveguides, in amicroelectronic integrated circuit such as complementary metal oxidesemiconductor (CMOS) technology. According to one embodiment, aprogrammable resonant LC circuit may be created using fixed inductorsformed by transmission lines in conjunction with fixed and tunablecapacitive elements. This architecture enables the efficientimplementation of wideband tuning circuits for analog circuits in thegigahertz range while eliminating the current state-of-the-art spiralinductors in resonance or tank circuits. The tunable resonant circuitcan be used, for example, to form part of voltage controlled oscillatorsand analog amplifier blocks in the programmable radio transceiverdevice.

Referring to FIG. 8, there is illustrated a block diagram of oneembodiment of bondwires 150 used to couple a circuit to a semiconductorbase, such as a lead frame 148. The bondwires 150 are connected (e.g.,soldered) to bonding pads 152 that are printed or etched on thesemiconductor substrate that supports the circuit 180 and on the leadframe 148. According to one embodiment, the circuit 180 may comprise areactive (LC) tank circuit that may be tuned for resonant frequency andinput impedance, as discussed further below.

Referring to FIG. 2, there is illustrated a block diagram of oneembodiment of a programmable resonant circuit 132 employing an inductorand a variable capacitance. The resonant circuit 132 includes aninductor 134 that may be formed by a transmission line structure, suchas a bondwire, microstrip lines or coplanar waveguide lines. Theinductor 134 is connected in parallel with tunable capacitive elements136 and 138 between a first node 40 and a second node 142 that are usedto couple the resonant circuit to other components and/or circuits. Inone embodiment, the capacitance of the variable capacitive elements 136and 138 may be controlled by control signals 144 from, for example, themicrocontroller and/or BITE module, as discussed in more detail below.

According to one embodiment, the inductor 134 may be provided by theparasitic inductance associated with semiconductor packaging. Morespecifically, referring to FIG. 3, a semiconductor integrated circuit146, such as the RFIC of the present invention, is typically coupled toa lead frame 148 using a plurality of bondwires 150. Each of thesebondwires 150 has associated with it a certain inductance that isdependent on the length of the bondwire, the cross-sectional area of thebondwire and the spacing between adjacent bondwires. The bondwire 150has a fixed self-inductance that may be approximately determined fromthe length and cross-section of the bondwire. In addition, mutualinductive coupling between closely spaced bondwires affects theinductance of each bondwire. A particular inductance can therefore beimplemented by suitably adjusting length, cross section, and spacing ofthe bondwires.

Referring to FIGS. 3 and 4, the resonant LC circuit of FIG. 2 may beimplemented using one or more such bondwires 150 of fixed inductancethat interconnect bonding pads 152 on the RFIC 146 and the lead frame148. In one example, the resonance circuit 132 may comprise at least twomutually coupled bondwire conductors 150. However it is to beappreciated that the invention is not limited to the use of twobondwires and one or more wires may be used in various applications. Forexample, referring to FIG. 11, there is illustrated a representativecircuit diagram of another embodiment of a bondwire inductorconfiguration according to aspects of the invention. Three or morebondwires 150 may be connected, end-to-end in a meandering manner asshown in FIG. 11. For example, a first bondwire 150 a may be coupled toa circuit (e.g., circuit 146) on a semiconductor chip via a couplingcapacitor—and a bonding pad 152. The first bondwire inductor 150 a maybe coupled to a second bondwire inductor 150 b via bonding pads 152 anda first capacitance 188 a. The second bondwire inductance may in turn becoupled to a third bondwire inductor 150 c via bonding pads 152 and asecond capacitance 188 b, which may also in turn be coupled to a fourthbondwire inductor 150 d via bonding pads and a third capacitance 188 c,as shown in FIG. 11. The pattern my be continued indefinitely to coupleas many bondwire inductors together as may be desired for any givenapplication. The fourth bondwire inductor may then be coupled to thesemiconductor circuit 146 via a bonding pad 152 and another couplingcapacitor 166. The meander-like configuration illustrated in FIG. 11 maybe used to increase the inductance provided the bondwires. Thecapacitances 188 a-c may be variable and may be used to control theoverall reactance provided by the series of bondwire inductors. Theability to control the reactance may be desirable for a number ofreasons, including added flexibility in controlling the input impedanceof, for example, a resonant circuit to which the bondwire inductorbelongs, and in impedance matching to other circuit components to whichthe bondwire inductors may be connected.

In addition, it is to be appreciated that the bondwires 150 act astransmission lines to transport energy between the chip bonding pads 152and the lead frame. Therefore, the invention is not limited to the useof bondwires and other types of transmission lines, such as microstriplines and coplanar waveguide lines may be used instead of or in additionto bondwires. Accordingly, although for clarity the following discussionwill refer primarily to bondwires, it is to be understood that theprinciples discussed apply equally to other types of transmission lines.

The bondwire(s) 150 may be coupled with a tuning circuit that mayinclude the fixed and variable capacitances that form part of theresonant circuit of FIG. 2. Referring to FIG. 5, there is illustrated acircuit diagram representing a lumped element model of the distributednature of the LC tank circuit depicted in FIG. 2 and in FIGS. 3 and 4.Essentially, the bondwires 150 act like transmission lines that areterminated at a source-side 176 by capacitors of the tuning circuit 154,and at a load-side 178 are coupled either to one another or to groundvia a small inductance L_(pcb) that arises from the semiconductorsubstrate material. At a particular frequency, the transmission lineswhich represent the bondwires 150, can be approximated as a reactancewith a fixed inductance L_(bw). This is the inductance used to implementthe fixed inductor 134 in the resonant circuit 132 of FIG. 2.Furthermore, the bonding pads 152 are plates with respect to the groundplane and thus act as parasitic capacitors Cstray and Cpad. It is to beappreciated that when selecting the fixed capacitors C1, C2, C3 andvariable capacitors C_(v) in the tuning circuit 154 to achieve a desiredresonance, these parasitic capacitors Cstray and Cpad should beaccounted for.

As illustrated in FIG. 2, according to one embodiment, the tuningcircuit 154 includes two tunable capacitive elements 136, 138. In oneembodiment, as illustrated in FIG. 5, the first tunable capacitiveelement 136 may comprise a switchable bank of fixed capacitors 156 (C1,C2, C3) and the second capacitive element 138 may comprise one or morevariable capacitors 158 a, 158 b. The fixed and variable capacitorsserve a dual purpose, namely selection of a particular resonance centerfrequency (for example, for the band selection of a multi-protocolcellular telephone standard), and compensation for fabrication processvariations. Although the use of either fixed or variable capacitors ispossible, both are provided in at least one embodiment of the inventionto maximize flexibility and allow for both course and fine tuning overwide frequency ranges.

According to one embodiment, the switchable bank of fixed capacitors 156may comprise a plurality of MOS (metal oxide semiconductor) or MIM(metal-insulator-metal) capacitor banks that may be electronicallyswitched by the control signals 144 (see FIG. 2). It is to beappreciated that any type of fixed capacitor may be used, however, MOSor MIM capacitors are common to CMOS and other semiconductor integratedcircuits and may therefore be used in one preferred embodiment. Theresonant frequency of the resonant circuit 132 may be adjusted or tunedover a wide range by switching in and/or out one or more of the MOScapacitor banks. These fixed capacitors may have relatively largecapacitances, for example, on the order of tens of Pico farads and maytherefore be used to provide course tuning, for example, to select thefrequency band of operation (e.g., 800 MHz, 1900 MHz, 2400 MHz, etc.).Fine tuning of the resonance circuit may be accomplished by controllingthe capacitance of the variable capacitor(s) 158. In one embodiment, thevariable capacitor(s) 158 may be implemented using one or more varactordiodes whose capacitance can be adjusted through a variable controlvoltage. Specifically, for a varactor diode, the junction capacitance isdependent on the reverse bias voltage V_(R) according to the formula:${C\left( V_{R} \right)} = \frac{C_{jo}}{\left( {1 - \frac{V_{R}}{\psi_{0}}} \right)^{n}}$where C(V_(R)) is the junction capacitance, C_(jo) is the junctioncapacitance under a zero volt bias voltage, ψ₀ is the so-called“built-in potential”, which may be approximately 0.5V, and n is atechnology parameter (dependent on the semiconductor fabricationtechnology) that may be approximately equal to 0.5. Generally, the biasvoltage V_(R) may be tunable from approximately 0-1.5V, depending onsemiconductor fabrication technology. Therefore, the capacitance valuesof the varactor diodes may be normally below about 1 pF, and thevaractors are thus suitable for fine tuning the overall capacitance ofthe resonant circuit 132. In one example, one or more banks of varactordiodes may be used to fine tune the resonant frequency of the resonancecircuit over a range of several megahertz in a band more coarselyselected by switching in and out of the fixed capacitor bank(s). Inaddition, different varactor diodes may possess different zero biasjunction capacitance values and thus further flexibility in tuning maybe accomplished by creating one or more banks of varactor diodes withdifferent zero bias junction capacitances.

Referring to FIG. 6, there is illustrated an exemplary graph ofresonance frequency as a function of applied bias voltage V_(R) for asimulation of the resonance circuit of FIG. 5. As additional fixedcapacitors are switched in to the circuit of FIG. 5, FIG. 6 illustratesthat the resonance frequency decreases for the same bias voltage on thevaractor diodes. Thus, as illustrated in FIG. 6, course tuning (e.g.,frequency band selection) may be accomplished by switching in/out one ormore fixed capacitors. For a given selection of fixed capacitors (e.g.,slope C1), FIG. 6 illustrates that varying the bias voltage V_(R)changes the resonant frequency by a small amount, and can therefore beused for fine tuning within a selected frequency band.

Referring to FIG. 31, there is illustrated another embodiment of aresonant circuit 346 incorporating two bondwire inductors 348. Switches350 may allow the bondwire inductors 348 to be coupled to additionalbondwires, thereby adjusting the total inductance in the resonantcircuit 346. Further switches 352 may allow the addition of capacitors354 and varactor diodes 356 into the resonant circuit for the purpose ofaugmenting the inductive reactances of the bondwires 348 with capacitivereactances. In one embodiment, the switches 350 and/or 352 may beimplemented using two MOS transistors 358 a, 358 b, as shown in FIG. 32.A digital signal B0 and its logical inverse {overscore (B0)} may allowfor current flow or no current flow respectively by controlling thevoltage provided by the digital signal B0 to exceed the thresholdvoltage of the MOS transistors. The value of the digital voltage signalB0 may be supplied, for example, by the microcontroller 108 over theprogramming bus 110. As discussed further below, a voltage signal may besupplied from, for example, the BITE module 106 (see FIG. 1), to tunethe reactance of the varactor diode(s). It is to be appreciated that theresonant circuit illustrated in FIG. 31 may be coupled in either seriesor parallel to, for example, the resonant circuit of FIG. 5. Inaddition, the additional capacitors and varactor diodes could beconfigured with one another in shunt or in series.

Thus, tuning of the resonant frequency of the resonant circuit 132 maybe accomplished by switching in and/or out one or more individual orbanks of fixed-value capacitors (e.g., MOS or MIM capacitors) for coursetuning (e.g., band selection) and changing the bias voltage of the oneor more varactor diode(s) for fine tuning. Fine tuning may be used notonly to select a particular desired center frequency within a band, butalso to compensate for temperature variation, manufacturing differencesin the inductor values, frequency drift (e.g., with temperature), etc.

According to some embodiments of the invention, the parasitic inductanceinherent to a low-cost, high-volume, high pin count semiconductorassembly is utilized to replace conventional spiral inductors inresonant circuits on an RFIC. In particular, such embodiments of theinvention exploit the bondwires between the lead frame and the bond padsof the microelectronic circuit and provide, in conjunction with fixedand variable capacitors, a high quality factor (Q) resonance circuitwithout the use of spiral inductors. The Q of a circuit, defined as theratio of stored energy in the resonance circuit to the dissipated energyfrom the resonance circuit, is enhanced when the parasitic resistance inan inductor-capacitor (LC) loop circuit is reduced. Typically, Q valuesabove 20, under loaded circuit conditions, are considered high. The Q ofan element may be affected by the element's resistance because higherresistance may tend to result in more dissipated energy. Likeconventional single or dual layer integrated spiral inductors, bondwiresexhibit low resistance, generally less than 25 mΩ per mm. As discussedabove, bondwires 150 also have a reactance (inductance) that isdependent on various parameters, such as length, cross-section andmutual coupling with adjacent wires, and is also variable withfrequency. Referring to FIG. 9, there is illustrated a graph ofsimulated input impedance of a bondwire as a function of frequency overa range of 0.8 GHz to 2.4 GHz. As shown in FIG. 9, the resistance(indicated by line 182) is small and fairly constant with frequency. Thereactance (indicated by line 184) increases with increasing frequency.

Bondwires generally display an unloaded Q of about 30-60. Referring toFIG. 10, there is illustrated a graph of simulated unloaded Q as afunction of frequency over a range of 0.8 GHz to 2.4 GHz, for oneembodiment of a bondwire 150. The unloaded Q is calculated as the ratioof the imaginary part of the input impedance of the bondwire (i.e., thereactance 184) to the real part of the input impedance of the bondwire(i.e., resistance 182), as shown in the formula below:$Q_{unloaded} = \frac{{Im}\left( Z_{in} \right)}{{Re}\left( Z_{in} \right)}$As shown in FIG. 10, the unloaded Q for the bondwire increases withfrequency and may easily exceed 40 at 3.5 GHz (based on extrapolation).Varactor diodes generally have an unloaded Q of less than 200, however,the Q can be improved by parallel connecting several varactor diodes.The overall loaded Q of the resonance circuit may be controlled byincluding a resistor 160 in parallel with the inductor and capacitors,as illustrated in FIG. 2. The Q may be tuned over a wide range by makingthis parallel resistor programmable. For example, the resistor 160 maybe programmable via the control signals 144 (see FIG. 2).

One advantage of bondwire inductors over conventional spiral inductorsis that bondwire inductors do not take up large chip areas. Also,because the bondwires are external to the integrated circuit chip 146,little electromagnetic field interference or coupling into the chip areais induced. However, a disadvantage is that the self-inductance of thebondwires may vary largely, for example, up to about 30% betweendifferent fabrications, due to process variations such as wire length162, wire height 164 (see FIG. 4), soldering condition variations, etc.However, this disadvantage may be mitigated in the resonance circuit ofthe invention because inductance variations can be compensated for by achange in either or both of the fixed capacitances (e.g., the MOScapacitors and/or MIM capacitors) and the variable capacitance (e.g.,the varactor diodes).

As discussed above, there have been attempts to develop narrow-bandtuning circuits that incorporate bondwire inductors. However, incontrast to the prior art, the unique resonant circuit according tovarious embodiments of the present invention both includes a bondwire(or other transmission line) inductor to replace conventional spiralinductors and makes use of a plurality of fixed capacitors and variablecapacitors controlled by control signals to achieve wideband tuning.Control signals are used to set a resonant frequency of the resonantcircuit by controlling banks of switchable capacitors and by selectingthe number of varactor diodes used in the resonant. In addition, furthercontrol signals are used to set the bias voltage applied to the varactordiodes to achieve fine tuning and to account for variance in thebondwire inductance due to manufacturing variability. In addition,closed-loop feedback control may be used to dynamically compensate forchanging operating conditions and to enable automatic programmability ofthe resonant frequency range of the resonance circuit, as discussed indetail below.

In many applications, the tunable resonance circuit 132 (see FIG. 2) iscoupled to other circuits, such as, for example, a voltage controlledoscillator (VCO), a low noise amplifier, a baseband amplifier, andothers. Such coupling may be facilitated via tunable coupling capacitorsin order to establish appropriate matching conditions. Referring to FIG.2, the first node 140 and the second node 142 of the LC tank circuit 132can be coupled to an external circuit, for example, a VCO, via couplingcapacitors 166. These coupling capacitors separate the RF path from theDC bias for the varactor diodes and the VCO. According to oneembodiment, the coupling capacitors 166 may be variable (i.e. having atunable capacitance value) so as to vary the input impedance of the LCcircuit at a given frequency, thereby improving matching of the LCcircuit to the external circuit (e.g., the VCO). Good matching may beadvantageous because it facilitates efficient power transfer from onecircuit to another and improves the overall power efficiency of theRFIC. As an example, an advantage of one embodiment of the invention isthat by coupling the LC tank circuit to, for example, a VCO, the tuningrange and frequency band of the VCO can be controlled by controlling theresonance of the LC tank circuit.

To further facilitate integration of the tunable resonance circuit 132with other analog functional circuits, such as a VCO, a control unit canbe employed that enables automatic resonance frequency selection andfine tuning with a circuit comprising a microcontroller and a phase lockloop (PLL) circuit. A block diagram of one example of such a controlcircuit is illustrated in FIG. 7. As discussed above, a particularfrequency band of operation may be selected by switching in and/or out aparticular number of fixed-value capacitors. According to oneembodiment, band selection may be controlled by a control signal on line180 from the microcontroller 108. The microcontroller may receive aninput (e.g., via the interface 112—see FIG. 1) that identifies a desiredoperating frequency band. Based on the selected frequency band ofoperation, the microcontroller 108 may determine the number of fixed andvariable capacitors and send control signals to the switches 168 toswitch in appropriate ones or banks of fixed-value capacitors andvariable capacitors (e.g., varactor diodes). The microcontroller mayfurther control a bias voltage of the varactor diode(s) to narrow, ormore accurately define, the operating frequency range, as discussedabove. The decoder 170 in FIG. 7 converts the digital signals from themicrocontroller to analog control signals to operate the switches 168and adjust the bias voltages of the varactor diodes. Thus, themicrocontroller enables programmable frequency selection by controllingthe capacitance that is coupled in parallel with the fixed bondwireinductance to select a desired resonant frequency.

According to one embodiment, compensation for operating fluctuations(e.g., temperature drift) may be implemented using feedback control withthe built-in test and evaluation (BITE) module 106, as discussed indetail below. In particular, the BITE module 106 may monitor and correctfor frequency deviations and operational drifts based on an in-situcalibration scheme. In one example, dynamic adjustment of the biasvoltage for the varactors to stabilize the chosen frequency againstenvironmental fluctuations (temperature, humidity, etc.) as well asoperational fluctuations (power fluctuations) is implemented by astandard phase-lock-loop (PLL) circuit 172 that generates the correctionvoltage based on an error signal from the microcontroller 108. Theclosed-loop feedback control methods implemented by the BITE module 106for calibration and dynamic compensation for variable operatingconditions is discussed in further detail below.

As discussed above, according to one embodiment, the LC tank circuit ofthe invention may be coupled to a low noise amplifier (LNA). Low noiseamplifiers are commonly used in radio transceivers to amplify a receivedRF signal so as to improve the signal to noise ratio of the receivedsignal to facilitate processing of the signal. To facilitate signaltransfer through the LNA, it is important to provide impedance matchingto the components to which the LNA is connected. Impedance matching,typically to a source impedance of 50 Ohms, may be particularlyimportant for integrated high performance multi-band LNAs and may beneeded over a wide frequency band.

Referring to FIG. 12, there is illustrated a circuit diagram of oneembodiment of matching an RF source 192 to the input of atransistor-based circuit using an LC tank circuit 190. The MOStransistors M1 and M2 may form part of an LNA 116 to which the RF source192 is being matched using the LC tank circuit 190. FIG. 12 illustratesan inductively degenerated common source cascade CMOS configurationwhere the LC tank circuit 190 is part of the input to the gate of theMOS transistor M1. It should be appreciated that other LNAconfigurations may be used and the principles of the invention are notlimited to the example shown in FIG. 12. It is to be appreciates thatthe LC tank circuit 190 may comprise one or more bondwire inductors andany of the elements discussed above in reference to FIGS. 2-5. PortsV_(dc1) and V_(dc2) provide a DC bias voltage for the transistors M1 andM2, respectively. The resistance R_(d) may be a current-limitingresistance that is coupled between the transistors and a drain voltagesupply, V_(dd).

For the configuration illustrated in FIG. 12, the input impedance seenby the RF source (i.e., at node 278) can be expressed as$Z_{in} = {{j\quad\omega\quad L_{S}} + \frac{1}{j\quad\omega\quad C_{gs1}} + {\frac{g_{m1}}{C_{gs1}}L_{S}} + {jX}}$

where Z_(in) is the input impedance, L_(s) is the source degeneratedinductance, g_(m1) is the transconductance of transistor M1, C_(gs1) isthe total gate-source capacitance of M1, ω is the angular frequency, andX is the reactance provided by the LC tank circuit 190. In one example,for a 180 nm node size CMOS process, the source degenerated inductancemay be approximately 0.5 nH to 1 nH, the transconductance may be in arange from about 30 mS to 100 mS, and the gate-source capacitance may bein a range from about 0.7 pF to 1.5 pF. It is to be appreciated thatalthough these values may be typical for a 180 nm node size CMOSprocess, similar values can be found for other technology node sizes. Inaddition, the RF source 192 may typically have a 50 Ohm impedance andthus it may be desirable to match the input impedance Z_(in) mayapproximate 50 Ohms.

In one example, matching to a 50 Ohm source impedance may be achieved ifthe following conditions are met:${\frac{g_{m1}}{C_{gs1}}L_{S}} = {50\quad\Omega\quad{and}}$${{j\quad\omega\quad L_{S}} + \frac{1}{j\quad\omega\quad C_{gs1}}} = {jX}$

In other words, the reactance of the LC tank circuit, including abondwire inductor configuration, may be controlled to approximatelycancel out the reactance of the transistor circuit (the seriescombination of the source degenerated inductance and the totalgate-source capacitance) at the target frequency.

Some examples of common target frequencies for an integrated RFICcomprising elements of the invention may include 1.9 GHz for DigitalEnhanced Cordless Telephone (DECT) and 2.4 GHz for Bluetoothapplications. Considering one DECT example, a 50 Ohm input impedancematch may be provided for a 1.9 GHz DECT application where L_(s)=0.57 nHand C_(gs1)=1.332 pF, by controlling the reactance to be X=112.68 Ohms.In another example, a 50 Ohm input impedance match may be provided for a2.4 GHz Bluetooth standard having L_(s)=1.2 nH and C_(gs1)=0.703 pF bycontrolling the reactance of the LC tank circuit to be X=208.3 Ohms. Ina similar way, matching for other standards, like GSM and CDMA, can alsobe implemented.

As discussed above with reference to FIGS. 5 and 11, target reactancevalues for the LC tank circuit may be implemented by cascading bondwires150 and by varying capacitances 156, 158 and 188. In addition, asdiscussed above with reference to FIG. 9, the reactance may vary withfrequency, as shown by curve 184 and may be augmented by fixed andvariable capacitance such that the target reactance of X is reached.

According to another embodiment, the LC tank circuit including abondwire inductor configuration may be coupled to a differential stagelow noise amplifier and may be used to match the input impedance of adifferential LNA to, for example, a 50 Ohm or 100 Ohm RF source(RF_(in+) and RF_(in−) in FIG. 13). Referring to FIG. 13, there isillustrated one example of a balanced LNA including inductive seriesfeedback (provided by L2, L3, L4 and L5) and using p-type and n-type MOStransistors 194 a, 194 b, 194 c and 194 d. As shown in FIG. 13, adifferential balanced input stage with current sources controlled byvoltages V_(BP) and V_(BN) may be used. Such a circuit may beimplemented, for example, in a 0.35 nm CMOS process. It is to beappreciated that the principles of the invention are not limited to theexemplary LNA configuration illustrated in FIG. 13 and other types oftransistors and configurations may be used. In addition, other node sizeCMOS processes may be also used.

In conventional integrated differential LNAs, the inductors L1-L6 may beimplemented as spiral inductors which may have several associateddisadvantages, as discussed above. According to one embodiment of theinvention, any or all of the inductors L1-L6 may be implemented usingbondwires, or other types of transmission lines, as discussed above.Referring to FIG. 14, there is illustrated one example of a bondwireinductor configuration for the circuit of FIG. 13. Each of the inductorsL1-L6 may comprise one or bondwires connected at each end to a bondingpad 152, as discussed above. The capacitors 196 represent thecapacitance presented by the bonding pads. In one example, the shorts198 connecting the bonding pads 152 on the lead frame together may bereplaced by fixed or variable capacitors. In addition, on the chip side,the connections to the bond wires could also include either fixed orvariable (or both) capacitors. These capacitors may be used to achieveparticular reactance values so as to optimize the overall circuitperformance at a specific operating frequency or band of operatingfrequencies, and/or to provide input impedance matching between thedifferential amplifier and the RF input port, as discussed above.

It is to be appreciated that the various embodiments of the programmableLC tank circuit as described herein can be coupled to various RFcomponents of the configurable RFIC of FIG. 1 to achieve programmabletuning of these components, and so as to tune the overall RFIC to adesired operating frequency band.

Referring again to FIG. 1, according to at least one embodiment, anintegrated radio transceiver chip may include a frequency synthesizer104 that is adapted to generate one or more reference frequencies foruse by various components in the RFIC. More specifically, according toone embodiment, there may be provided a programmable frequencysynthesizer that may generate a wide range of stable frequencies so asto enable operation of a multi-band, multi-standard radio transceiver.In one embodiment, the frequency synthesizer employs a wide band localoscillator architecture that comprises a narrowband VCO combined with aprogrammable divider to generate local oscillator signals for the radiotransceiver, as discussed in detail below. A wide range of stable localoscillator frequencies are desirable for a multi-band, multi-standardradio transceiver. However, having a large number of VCOs and/orreference signal sources (e.g., reference crystals) may require a largechip surface area and increase the cost of the radio transceiver due tolarger size and increased component count. Therefore, it may bedesirable to minimize the number of VCOs and reference sources in orderto obtain a high degree of integration and high performance for an RFIC.

Referring to FIG. 15, there is illustrated a block diagram of oneembodiment of a frequency synthesizer 104 according to aspects of theinvention. The frequency synthesizer 104 implements a wide bandprogrammable local oscillator (LO) architecture and is based on amodified direct digital synthesis phase lock loop (PLL) thatincorporates single or multiple digital band switching dividers inside aforward loop path 202 so as to provide flexibility in generating a largenumber of stable reference frequencies. As shown in FIG. 15, thefrequency synthesizer 104 may include a voltage controlled oscillator(VCO) 198 coupled to a programmable LC tank circuit 200 such asdescribed above. The programmable LC tank circuit 200 allows resonantfrequency band selection of the LC tank circuit, as discussed above, andcan be used to control a tuning range of the VCO 198. In one example,the VCO may have a tuning range of up to ±20% about a center frequencythat can be set, for example, in a range between about 1 GHz and 3 GHz.A reference frequency source 204 provides a reference frequency f_(ref)to the synthesizer loop via a phase detector 228 and a loop filter 230.The programmable frequency synthesizer may further comprise aprogrammable divide-by-N circuit 232 and a mixer 234 in the forward loop202, an upper or lower sideband selection filter 236, and a divide-by-Mcircuit 238 in the feedback loop, each of which are discussed in moredetail below. In one embodiment, a narrowband signal f_(vco) (providedby the VCO in combination with the LC tank circuit) may be mixed with anN divided version of itself in either a single-sideband ordouble-sideband modulator 234. The result of the mixing yields an uppersideband and a lower sideband which may provide a local oscillatorsignal on both sides of the VCO frequency, f_(vco). Each of thesesidebands may have the same percentage bandwidth as the VCO signal, thusproviding a wide range of frequency coverage that is a function of boththe VCO bandwidth and the division ratio.

According to one embodiment, the reference frequency signal source 204may include a direct digital synthesizer (DDS) that derives itsreference frequency from a crystal source and generates the referencefrequencies. For example, for a multiple standard radio transceiver,some desirable reference frequencies may include 13 MHz, 26 MHz, 19.2MHz, 19.6 MHz, 20 MHz, 22 MHz, 40 MHz, and 44 MHz. Of course, it is tobe appreciated that many other reference frequency values may also begenerated and the invention is not limited to the examples given above.One embodiment of a reference frequency source 202 according to aspectsof the invention is illustrated (in block diagram form) in FIG. 16. Anumerically controlled crystal oscillator 206 generates an output signalon line 208 that is fed to a direct digital synthesis (DDS) circuit 210.The crystal oscillator 206 may include a crystal 212 attached to anoscillator 214 and controlled via one or more variable capacitors 216.The DDS circuit 210 receives the signal from the crystal oscillator 206on line 208. The DDS circuit 210 also receives a digital programmingsignal from, for example, the RFIC microcontroller (see FIG. 1). Theprogramming signal may indicate to the DDS circuit the desired frequencyvalue of the reference frequency to be generated. Based on theprogramming signal 218, the DDS circuit produces (from the signal online 208) a digital reference frequency signal. The DDS also includes adigital-to-analog converter (DAC, not shown) that produces a sampledanalog carrier on line 220. In one example, the DAC is sampled at areference clock frequency determined from a clock signal 222. Therefore,a low pass filter (LPF) 224 may be used to eliminate aliasing ifnecessary. The generated reference frequency f_(ref) is produced on line226. In one example, the DDS circuit can be implemented in a fieldprogrammable gate array (FPGA).

According to one embodiment, multiple reference frequencies, which mayin turn be used to create multiple local oscillator signals, may begenerated using a single crystal 212 that has a fixed output frequencyvalue and thus has good stability performance. The frequency synthesizerarchitecture of the invention uses the reference frequency sourcedescribed above to produce multiple reference frequencies. Eachreference signal may retain the stability of the original crystalsignal, which may be very desirable for radio transceiver applications.

Referring again to FIG. 15, the VCO 198, as tuned by the LC tank circuit200, produces a signal having a frequency f_(vco), as shown. Thefrequency f_(vco) is modified by the divide-by-N circuit 232 and mixer234 such that a spectrum of f_(vco)+f_(vco)/N (the upper side band) andf_(vco)−f_(vco)/N (the lower side band) is generated. A subsequentsideband selection filter 236 may select one of the bands which becomesf_(out). The sideband selection filter may significantly extend thefrequency coverage of the local oscillator provided by the frequencysynthesizer because the sideband selection filter allows the localoscillator to have a frequency range that is substantially distant fromthe original VCO frequency. Stability of the generated frequencies maybe maintained by feeding back the output signal f_(out) through thedivide-by-M circuit 238 into the phase detector 228. The phase detectormay compare the selected sideband signal ((f_(vco)±f_(vco)/N)/M) withthe reference frequency signal generated by the reference frequencysource 204 to generate a loop signal on line 240 that may be conditionedthrough a low pass filter 230 before being applied to the VCO 198. Inthis manner, the VCO may be adjusted to accurately maintain a desiredsignal frequency. In one example, the phase detector 228 may beimplemented as a standard charge pump circuit.

According to one embodiment, the programmable divide-by-N circuit (whereN is a programmable high speed feed-forward divider ratio) may beimplemented as a single divider or as a combination of dividers.Furthermore, the programmable divide-by-N circuit 232 may be implementedin conjunction with a single output VCO or a quadrature output VCO(QVCO).

Referring to FIG. 17, there is illustrated one embodiment of a portionof the forward loop 202 including the divide-by-N circuit. In theillustrated example, the generated frequency f_(vco) is fed into astandard buffer 242 followed by a shunt configuration of a fixeddivide-by-2 circuit 244 and the programmable divide-by-N circuit 232.The value of N may be an integer or a non-integer and may be determinedby a control signal from, for example, the RFIC microcontroller (seeFIG. 1). The output signals of the fixed divide-by-2 circuit 244 are thefrequency components I₁ which is the “in-phase” signal and Q₁ which isthe quadrature signal and which is 90 degrees out of phase with I₁. Theoutput of the programmable divide-by-N circuit 232 similarly includes anin-phase frequency component signal I₂ and a quadrature component signalQ₂. These four signals may be provided to a lower sideband selectioncircuit and to an upper sideband selection circuit 248 which may formpart of the sideband selection filter 236 (see FIG. 15). The output ofthe lower sideband selection circuit includes the lower side band (LSB)frequencies, and the output of the upper sideband selection circuit 248includes the upper side band (USB) frequencies. As shown in FIG. 17, theUSB and LSB frequencies may be fed to a multiplexer 250 that may beadapted to allow the selection of either the USB or the LSB frequencysignals, depending on the setting of a digital control signal on line252. For example, setting the digital control signal to a “0”may selectthe LSB signal whereas setting the digital control signal to a “1”mayselect the USB signal, or vice versa. The multiplexer may also form partof the sideband selection filter 236.

According to another embodiment, the VCO may be a quadrature VCO 254, asillustrated in FIG. 18. The quadrature VCO 254 may generate an in-phasesignal I₁ (for example, a cosine signal cos (ω₁t) where ω₁ is theangular frequency of input frequency f_(vco)) and a quadrature signal Q₁(for example, a sine signal, sin (ω₁t)). One example of circuitimplementations for the lower sideband selection circuit and uppersideband selection circuit are illustrated in FIGS. 19 a and 19 b,respectively. Both circuits comprise the same functional blocks, namelya first mixer 256, a second mixer 258 and a summer 260. For the lowersideband selection circuit, signals I1 and I2 are applied to the firstmixer 256 and signals Q1 and Q2 are applied to the second mixer 258,whereas for upper sideband selection circuit signals I1 and Q2 areapplied to the first mixer and signals Q1 and I2 are supplied to thesecond mixer.

For an exemplary explanation of the operation of the sideband selectioncircuits, the signals can be assumed to be: I₁=cos (ω₁t), I₂=cos (ω₂t),Q₁=sin (ω₁t), Q₂=sin (ω₂t). Then, from the circuit configuration in FIG.19 a, the lower sideband output is:LSB=I ₁ *I ₂ +Q ₁ *Q ₂=cos [(ω₁−ω₂)t]

Similarly, from the circuit configuration of FIG. 19 b, the uppersideband output is:USB=I ₁ *Q ₂ +Q ₁ *I ₂=cos [(ω₁+ω₂)t]

Thus, by selecting one of the USB and LSB, a local oscillator signal isprovided that may be either close in frequency or substantially distantin frequency from the original VCO frequency, depending on the values ofω₁ and ω₂. The sideband selection filter may thus offer greatflexibility in the local oscillator frequency range, providing awideband local oscillator. The frequency synthesizer according toaspects of the invention thus allows the generation of an extremelywideband local oscillator signal from a relatively narrowband crystalreference frequency. Many radio transceiver applications require a lowintermediate frequency (low-IF) or direct conversion to baseband(zero-IF) architecture to minimize noise and losses and enhanceperformance. For these types of applications it may be desirable to havea local oscillator output frequency that is far from and unrelated to(i.e., not a direct multiple of) the fundamental VCO frequency. Thisarchitecture is readily implemented using the frequency synthesizer ofthe invention by programming the division ratio and sideband selectionfilter to create a local oscillator signal that is distant in frequencyfrom the VCO signal and is not an integer multiple of the VCO centerfrequency.

According to one embodiment, the divide-by-N circuit 232 and mixer 234in the forward loop 202 may be cascaded to comprise two or more dividerand mixer configurations as shown in FIG. 20. A first stage 262(comprising a divide-by-N circuit 232 and a mixer 234) may be cascadedwith a second stage 264 (also comprising a divide-by-N circuit 232 and amixer 234), separated by a band switch 266. Similarly, further stagesmay be cascaded so as to achieve any desired division ratio. The secondand subsequent stages may have either the same divider ratio ordifferent divide ratios. The band switch 266 may be used to select oneor more frequencies to be applied to the subsequent stage(s).

Referring again to FIG. 15, the feedback loop of the phase-locked loopmay comprise a divide-by-M circuit 238, as known in the art. M may be afixed or programmable divide ratio. If programmable, the value of M maybe set by a control signal from, for example, the RFIC microcontroller108 (see FIG. 1). The divide-by-M circuit 238 may be implemented basedon a number of standard divider circuits, including a digitallyprogrammable multistage noise shaping (MASH) Delta-Sigma modulator, asknown in the art. A factor that may be considered in selecting the typeof divider may be the settling time of the divider. For example, for aGSM-900 standard where the frequency range extends from 880 MHz to 915MHz and is based on 200 kHz channel spacing, the settling time may bearound 10 μs.

Some exemplary tuning ranges that may be achieved with variousembodiments of the wide band programmable LO architecture will now bediscussed to provide illustration and examples. However, it is to beappreciated that the inventive principle are not limited to the specificexamples discussed herein and apply broadly to a programmable LO thatmay be tuned over a desired frequency range. Table 1 below showsexamples of the center frequency (f_(center)), lower bound frequency(f_(low)) and upper bound frequency (f_(high)) possible with a VCOhaving a center frequency of 2 GHz and a tuning range of ±15%. It is tobe appreciated that the center frequency is arbitrary and simply servesto illustrate the tuning ratio (f_(high)/f_(low)) of the widebandprogrammable LO architecture of the invention. Any center frequency maybe selected and may be chosen, for example, based on the application forwhich the LO is to be used. Different frequency ranges can easily beachieved by scaling the VCO center frequency. The tuning ratio remainsthe same for different center frequencies. N is the division value ofthe divide-by-N circuit (see FIG. 15). By changing the value of N, theVCO center frequency may be scaled as shown. TABLE 1 Available frequencybands with VCO tuning range of +/−15%. Sideband N Log₂(N) f_(center)f_(low) f_(high) Upper 1 0 2000 1700 2300 Upper 2 1 1500 1275 1725 Upper4 2 1250 1062.5 1437.5 Upper 8 3 1125 956.25 1293.75 Lower 8 3 875743.75 1006.25 Lower 4 2 750 637.5 862.5 Lower 2 1 500 425 575 Lower 1 00 0 0

Referring to FIG. 21, there is illustrated a graph of the frequencytuning ranges as a function of the value of N as taken from Table 1.Lines 268 a, 268 b, 268 c and 268 d represent the upper sidebandfrequency ranges for each value of N from one to eight, respectively,and lines 270 a, 270 b, 270 c, 260 d represent the lower sidebandfrequency ranges for each value of N from one to eight, respectively. Ascan be seen from Table 1 and FIG. 21, all but the lowest two frequencyranges (represented by lines 270 a and 270 b) overlap and thus acontinuous frequency range from about 637.5 MHz to about 2.3 GHz isavailable, and other discrete frequency ranges can be provided. FIG. 21illustrates that the wide band programmable LO architecture of theinvention provides an equivalent to an oscillator with a centerfrequency of 1468.75 MHz, and a tuning range of ±57%. In other words,the frequency synthesizer of the invention provides a substantiallyincreased frequency tuning band compared to that of the original VCO(57% overall versus 15% for the VCO). The frequency synthesizer of theinvention may provide a wide-band programmable LO that may cover almosttwo octaves in frequency while maintaining the same tuning sensitivity(because tuning in fact occurs within each narrow band that are cascadedto provide a synthetic wide band, as shown in FIG. 21), therebymaintaining good phase noise.

Table 2 below gives example center frequencies, lower bound frequenciesand upper bound frequencies possible with a VCO having a centerfrequency of 2 GHz and a tuning range of +/−20%. The tuning range of theVCO may be adjusted (e.g., changed from 15% to 20%) using the resonantLC tank circuit, as discussed above. Again, N is the divider value forthe divide-by-N circuit of FIG. 15. TABLE 2 Available frequency bandswith VCO tuning range of +/−20%. Sideband N f_(center) f_(low) f_(high)Upper 1 2000 1600 2400 Upper 2 1500 1200 1800 Upper 4 1250 1000 1500Upper 8 1125 900 1350 Lower 1 875 700 1050 Lower 2 750 600 900 Lower 4500 400 600 Lower 8 0 0 0

FIG. 22 illustrates the frequency bands of Table 2 as a function of N,similar to FIG. 21. Lines 272 a, 272 b, 272 c and 272 d represent theupper sideband frequency ranges corresponding to each values of N fromone to eight, respectively, and lines 276 a, 276 b, 276 c, and 276 drepresent the lower sideband frequency ranges for each value of N fromone to eight, respectively. As shown, by increasing the VCO tuning rangeto 20% with the LC tank circuit, continuity of LO frequencies isavailable from 400 MHz to 2.4 GHz.

These examples illustrate that the frequency synthesizer architecturedescribed herein is capable of producing a wideband programmable localoscillator that is tunable over a very wide frequency range. This allowsthe use of a single LO for a multiple band, multiple standard radiotransceiver because the tuning range of the LO is wide enough to coverseveral frequency bands. Tuning sensitivity and phase noise performanceare maintained at levels comparable to narrow band local oscillatorsbecause the continuous wide frequency range is provided by a cascade ofseveral programmable narrow ranges. Tuning within any one of the narrowbands may be selected by setting the value of N. In addition, the VCOcenter frequency and tuning may be adjusted using the LC tank circuit,as discussed above. This provides additional flexibility in availablelocal oscillator frequencies.

Referring to FIG. 30, there is illustrated a circuit diagram of oneembodiment of an LC tank circuit 200 deployed in a differential VCOcircuit. In the illustrated example, the differential VCO comprises across-coupled MOS transistor pair 332 a, 332 b, connected to twovaractor diodes 334 a, 334 b and two LC resonant circuits 200. Thesignal from the loop filter 230 (see FIG. 15) is received at input port336 between the two varactor diodes 334 a, 334 b. Transistors 338 a and338 b are configured as a current mirror that sets the bias current forthe VCO. The output signal f_(vco) (see FIG. 15) is obtained at thedifferential outputs VCO+ and VCO− as voltage drops over resistors 340 aand 340 b, and transistors 342 a and 342 b act as buffers on theoutputs. as shown in FIG. 15, the differential voltage signal, atfrequency f_(vco), is the input into the divide-by-N circuit 232.

According to one embodiment, tuning of the VCO circuit 198 is achievedusing the varactor diodes 334 a, 334 b via a control voltage suppliedfrom the loop filter at input port 336. In one example, for Vdd=1.8volts (V), the varactor diodes 334 a, 334 b will start to beforward-biased when the tuning voltage reaches approximately 0.5 V.However, assuming that the overdrive voltage for the MOS transistors 332a, 332 b is approximately 0.5 V, there is a voltage drop of at least 0.5V between Vdd and the anodes (344 a, 344 b) of the varactors diodes.Thus, the DC voltage at the anodes is approximately 1.3 V (assumingVdd=1.8 V). As a result, the tuning voltage provided by loop filter 230at input port 336 may range from 0 V to Vdd (e.g., 1.8V) without forwardbiasing the varactor diodes 332 a, 332 b (because the anode voltage is1.3V and the diode threshold is 0.5 V). Consequently, varying the tuningvoltage does not increase the VCO gain, and because the varactor diodesare never forward biased, the VCO does not suffer from phase noiseperformance degradation.

In one embodiment, the VCO tuning range is controlled by a combinationof the varying the capacitance of the varactor diodes 332 a, 332 b withthe signal from the loop filter 230, and varying the capacitance of theLC tank circuit. As discussed above, tuning the capacitance of thevaractor diodes 332 a, 332 b provides fine frequency tuning within aband. Courser tuning is achieved by switching in and out banks ofcapacitors in the LC resonance circuits 200, as discussed above.Therefore, with the appropriate setting of the LC tank circuits 200, theVCO can have a very wide tuning range of up to about 20%.

As discussed above, the RFIC of FIG. 1 may include a built-in test andevaluation (BITE) digital analysis and calibration module 106 thatenables the setting, monitoring, and correction of performanceparameters such as gain, dynamic range, and selectivity in an analogreceiver chain. According to one embodiment, the BITE module may be anintegrated system component that can be embedded with the radiotransceiver chip for monitoring and calibration of the receiver and/ortransmitter chains. As shown in FIG. 1, the analog front end of an RFtransceiver may comprise a number of precisely tuned and optimizedfunctional blocks including, for example, a low noise amplifier 116, amixer 280, a bandpass filter 282, a baseband amplifier 284, and ananalog-to-digital converter 120. These or similar analog building blocksmay typically be found in most receiver architectures, includingheterodyne, low-IF and zero-IF receivers. When switching from oneoperating configuration to another to allow the analog receiver chain tooperate in a different setting (for example, a different cellular phonestandard) that requires a different band of operating frequencies,channel spacing, sensitivity, dynamic range, etc., it can be importantto monitor whether or not the performance characteristics of thereceiver and/or transmitter chain comply with the new telecommunicationstandard. If deviations are detected, it is also important to adjustparameters of the receiver chain to bring the system into compliancewith the desired performance requirements. Furthermore, once aparticular setting (for example, a GSM cell phone standard) is selectedby the user, it may be desirable to monitor the parameters of thereceiver chain, for example, at certain time intervals, to detect anydeviations from desired performance, and if such deviations aredetected, to correct them. It may be particularly, advantageous to beable to monitor performance parameters and make adjustments duringoperation of the radio transceiver, i.e., via an integrated (built-in)monitoring and calibration system.

Referring to FIG. 23, there is illustrated a block diagram of oneembodiment of a receiver chain of a radio transceiver, including abuilt-in test and evaluation (BITE) module 106 to monitor and adjust thefunctionality of a receiver chain, according to aspects of theinvention. The BITE module may monitor and adjust parameters such asgain, dynamic range, and selectivity in the receiver chain, a discussedbelow. In the illustrated example, the receiver chain comprises an RFinput 288, a low noise amplifier 116, a mixer 280, a bandpass filter282, a baseband amplifier 284 and an analog-to-digital converter (ADC)120. Each of these components may be programmable via digital commandsthat may be received via the programming bus 110. These digital commandsmay specify operating parameters of the components, such as, forexample, center frequency and filter order of the programmable bandpassfilter 282, effective number of bits of the ADC 120, and otherparameters as discussed further below. Each component may include adigital register into which the digital commands may be loaded to setthe operating parameters. The BITE module 106 can be switched into andout of the receiver chain by a pair of complementary, low-insertion lossswitches 290 a and 290 b. During normal operation of the receiver chain,an RF signal is received at the RF input 288 and is processed throughthe receiver chain to provide a digital output on line 296. When theBITE module is operational, the switches 290 a, 290 b disconnect thereceiver chain from the RF input 288 and digital output node 296 andinstead couple the receiver chain to the BITE module 106.

According to one embodiment, for testing, monitoring or calibration ofthe receiver chain, a trigger signal may be sent to the BITE module 106over the digital programming bus 110 from, for example, themicrocontroller 108 (see FIG. 1) to activate the BITE module. Forexample, the BITE module chain may begin operation when themicrocontroller issues a command to monitor the analog receiver chain.Alternatively, the microcontroller may send a command to the system toswitch over to a different standard, for example from GSM to CDMA. Inthis case, the microcontroller may issue a command to tune the receiverfor a particular center frequency, gain setting, bandwidth, andlinearity, compliant with a selected telecommunication standard. As aresult, the BITE module may be activated to check performance of one ormore of the components of either or both of the receiver chain and thetransmitter chain of the radio transceiver to ensure that thetransceiver is operating in accordance with the new standard performancerequirements. In both the above examples, the BITE module receives, fromthe microcontroller, a specific data word whose content contains theinformation to set a particular standard such as GSM, EDGE-GSM, CDMA,etc., as discussed further below. In addition to activating the BITEmodule, the microcontroller may send a signal to the switch 290 a totemporarily disconnect the RF input 288 from the receiver chain andinstead allow a test input signal on line 292 to be input to thereceiver chain. Simultaneously (or nearly so), the microcontroller maysend a signal to the switch 290 b to temporarily disconnect the digitaloutput node 296 from a subsequent digital baseband processor interface(e.g., digital baseband processor 124 and digital interface 112—seeFIG. 1) and instead connect the digital output to the BITE module 106via line 298.

Referring to FIG. 24, there is illustrated one embodiment of a built-intest and evaluation (BITE) module according to aspects of the invention.The BITE module 106 may comprise a Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT)module 300, a data table look-up module 302, a comparator 304, a macromodel 306, a serial to parallel conversion module 308, and optionally atransmitter chain 310 that generates the test input signal to be appliedon line 292. It is to be appreciated that the test signal may either begenerated by a separate transmitter 310 or may be obtained from thetransmitter portion of the radio transceiver architecture (see FIG. 1).The BITE module 106 may be coupled to the microcontroller 108 via thedigital bus 114 (see FIG. 1). In one embodiment, the BITE module 106 maybe implemented with hardwired, embedded logic as available in fieldprogrammable gate array (FPGA) logic, or as part of a cell-basedapplication specific integrated circuit (ASIC) microelectronic design.

According to one embodiment, a purpose of the BITE module 106 is togenerate suitable test signals that can be used to test the analogreceiver chain. These test signals are dependent on a particularsetting, for example, a cell phone standard such as GSM, EDGE-GSM, CDMA,and the like, and are based on the particular parameter settings of theindividual functional blocks in the receiver chain (e.g., the LNA,bandpass filter, etc.) that are needed to achieve performance compliancefor the selected setting. Some examples of parameters within thereceiver chain blocks that may be tested include: bias voltage orcurrent to set desired power levels and gains, impedance of input andoutput matching networks to maintain proper input/output impedancematching between components for particular operational frequency bands,device sizes of the active devices to change the operating frequency,and third order input intercept points (IIP3s) to specify the linearity.

FIG. 28 is a flow diagram illustrating one example of the process stepsthat the radio transceiver may go through, including steps the BITEmodule may implement to test receiver components, e.g., the LNA 116,when switched to a selected operating standard. It is to be appreciatedthat the BITE module may be used to test and/or monitor any programmablecomponent of the receiver chain and/or transmitter chain of the radiotransceiver. For conciseness, the following discussion will referprimarily to testing of a component of the receiver chain. However it isto be appreciated that the principles of the invention and the processsteps described apply also to components of the transmitter chain.

In a first step 320, the radio transceiver may enter an initializationmode. The purpose of the initialization mode is to configure or programthe receiver chain into a state that represents a best initial “guess”(e.g., based on factory calibration data) as to the state of thereceiver chain desired for operation in the selected receiver setting(e.g., CDMA mode, GSM mode, etc.). For example, referring to FIG. 1, theprogrammable radio transceiver 101 may receive a command from anexternal host controller (not shown) through the interface 112 toconfigure or re-configure the analog receiver chain into a selected modeof operation. In response, the integrated microcontroller may load(e.g., from memory 126) digital register values associated with theselected mode and clock them onto the programming bus 110 to betransmitted to the components of the radio transceiver. In oneembodiment, the microcontroller may load a digital word specifying theregister values directly to the components of the receiver chain. Inanother embodiment, once the BITE module 106 is connected into theanalog chain, the BITE module loads the digital registers, the contentof which is communicated via the digital programming bus 110 to each ofthe analog blocks, for example, the low noise amplifier 116, the mixer280, the bandpass filter 282, the baseband amplifier 284, and the ADC120. The digital word acts as a control signal that may specifyoperating characteristics of each analog block in the receiver chain towhich it is applied. For example, the digital word may specify a centerfrequency of the bandpass filter, a gain of the amplifier, etc. Thedigital word allows the individual blocks within the receiver chain toset so as to implement a particular function of the telecommunicationstandard. In one example, the contents of the digital word may bespecified by the microcontroller 108 or baseband processor 124. In oneembodiment, the memory 126 may store one or more digital words thatspecify operating parameters for one or more telecommunicationstandards. The microcontroller may access the memory to retrieve anappropriate digital word and provide it to the BITE module.

As shown in FIG. 23, the BITE module 106 may also be coupled to adigitally programmable oscillator 314 forming part of the frequencysynthesizer 104 (see FIG. 1) which provides a harmonic output signalhaving a frequency f_(out), as shown, for example, in FIGS. 15-18.According to one embodiment, from initial set of register valuesspecified by the digital word, the frequency synthesizer 104 may beprogrammed to a desired frequency band and may generate a referencefrequency signal f_(ref), as discussed above. The receiver VCO 198 (seeFIG. 15) may then be phase locked to the reference frequency signalf_(ref) (on line 226, see FIG. 15) through the use of negative feedbackassociated with the phase locked loop operation described in referenceto FIGS. 15 and 16. The result of this process is the generation of aprecise and desired local oscillator frequency f_(out), which may besupplied to the mixer 280 on line 316, as shown in FIG. 23.

In addition to setting the local oscillator frequency for the selectedoperating setting, certain parameters of other components of thetransceiver may be programmed as well. For example, digital registervalues may be communicated (via the programming bus) to controlparameters of the programmable bandpass filter 282 (see FIG. 23), suchas filter order, filter type (e.g., high pass, low pass, or bandpass),filter shape (e.g., Butterworth, Chebyshev, etc.) and center frequency.During initialization, digital registers of the programmable bandpassfilter 282 are loaded with the values associated with the desired modeof operation. From these initial settings, the center frequency andfilter order values may be adjusted in closed negative feedback loops.For example, the center frequency may be slaved to the precision masterclock 130 (see FIG. 1) and the filter order value may be slaved to themaster impedance 128. The result of this process is the precisecentering of the filter frequency and precise control of the filterorder. Furthermore, the analog to digital converter 120 may also beprogrammable, and register values may be set to control the samplingrate (Fs) and the effective number of bits (ENOB) to reflect the valuesrequired for the desired mode of operation. It is to be appreciated thatany programming registers in the receiver which are not adjusted bylocal negative feedback loops, such as, for example, bias current, inputmatching circuitry and load impedances can be set to the initial valuesstored in memory for the desired mode of operation.

Referring again to FIG. 28, in a second step 322, the radio transceivermay enter a test mode in which the BITE module 106 may be activated. Thepurpose of the test mode is to synthesize test signals to facilitatetesting of, for example, the receiver chain to determine its actuallevel of performance. In one embodiment, the BITE module 106 initiatestesting of the receiver chain by applying the test input signal to theinput of the analog receiver chain on line 292. The mixer 280 mixes thesignal on line 316 with the test input signal to translate the frequencycontent of test signal into a base band frequency with upper and lowerside bands. The bandpass filter 282 may then select a particular rangeof frequencies and transfer characteristics such as, for example, rippleand/or skew, based on the content of the digital word that was suppliedto the bandpass filter by the BITE module 106. The corresponding outputof the analog receiver chain, which is digitized by the ADC 120, isapplied to the BITE module on line 298 for processing. The test inputsignal may be generated with particular characteristics (e.g.,frequency, amplitude etc.) such that various performance features of theanalog chain (like gain, frequency, linearity) may be tested. In oneembodiment, a digital filter (not shown) may be placed in line 298 thatfilters the digital output signal and generates a monitor signal, forexample, at regular or synchronous intervals that are determined by aclock frequency from the master clock 130 (see FIG. 1).

According to one embodiment, the test signal on line 292 may begenerated on the semiconductor chip by the transmitter 280. Generally,for testing components of the receiver chain to determine whether theirperformance complies with a selected communication standard, the testsignal may be generated at the radio frequency of interest and may bemodulated or un-modulated, or may be a continuous wave (CW) signal. Forexample, to test for RF center frequency compliance and gain, a CWsignal at and around the desired center frequency may be used.

Referring to FIG. 33, there is illustrated an example of a phase-lockedVCO 366 in combination with a precision reference signal source that maybe used to generate a test signal having a precise RF output frequency.In one example, an input ramp signal may be generated digitally, forexample, by the microcontroller 108 (see FIG. 1), and applied on line360 to a digital-to-analog converter (DAC) 120 to be converted to ananalog signal. This analog signal on line 362 may be introduced to thefeedback loop 363 via a summer 364. A divide-by-N counter may beprogrammed, via a signal on the programming bus 100, to set appropriatevalues of N to divide the signal from the VCO 366 to generate thedesired output frequencies on line 368. A phase detector 228 may comparethe divided output frequency f_(test)/N with a reference frequencyf_(ref) on line 226 and generate a difference frequency signal that isfiltered by low-pass filter 230 and applied to the summer 364, as shownin FIG. 32. Generation of the reference frequency f_(ref) was discussedabove in reference to FIGS. 15 and 16. The summer 364 combines thefiltered signal from the phase detector 228 and the signal from the DAC120 to generate a tuning voltage V_(tune) that sets the VCO outputfrequency. In this manner, a precise test signal f_(test) may begenerated because the center frequency of the signal f_(test) may beprecisely controlled by the reference frequency source 204 (see FIG. 15)and the feedback loop 363.

According to one embodiment, the test signal power level, which may beused for gain calibration of various transceiver components, may becontrolled using a power control loop as shown in FIG. 34. The signalf_(test) on line 374 may be fed to a variable gain amplifier 370 whichmay amplify or attenuate the signal so as to provide a test signal online 372 having a particular power level P_(test). The gain applied tothe signal on line 374 by the variable gain amplifier 370 may becontrolled by a loop signal that is fed to the variable gain amplifieron line 376. In the power control loop, the output signal power levelP_(test) may be slaved to a precisely known reference current I_(REF)and reference voltage V_(REF) via a power detector unit (PDU) 378. Theoutput of the PDU 378 may be fed to one port of a signal comparator 380,as shown. The signal comparator may also receive a control signal at itsother port from the system microcontroller 108 (not shown). For example,the microcontroller may send a control signal (which may specify adesired power level for the signal on line 372), via the programming bus110, to a digital-to-analog converter (DAC) 120 which, in turn, appliesthe control signal to the signal comparator 380. The signal comparatormay compare the power level specified by the control signal and thepower level of the signal from the PDU 378 and generate a differencesignal on line 382. This difference signal may be filtered by a low-passfilter 384 and applied to the variable gain amplifier 370 to adjust thegain of the variable gain amplifier. The resultant test signal 386 (seeFIG. 33) may have a precisely controlled center frequency (from the loop363) and power level P_(test) that are known to within a specified andacceptable tolerance for the overall transceiver system.

Referring again to FIG. 24, as the BITE module applies a particular testsignal to the input of the analog receiver chain, it monitorssimultaneously the output via sampling of a digital monitoring signalsupplied to the BITE module on line 298. When the synchronously orasynchronously sampled digital data enters the BITE module 106, it istransformed into the frequency domain via the DFT module 300. Thistransformation allows the BITE module to analyze frequency components ofthe received signal and compare them to an ideal response signal, asdiscussed further below. In one embodiment, the DFT 300 may beimplemented, for example, as a 64, 128, 256 or 512 point transform whichallows the computation of complex constellation diagrams that describe,for a particular telecommunication standard, the in-phase (I) andquadrature (Q) components of a received digital signal, as discussedfurther below.

Once the DFT module 300 has generated the digital output signal DO, itis applied to the comparator 304. The comparator 304 also receives adigital signal DT from the data table 302. The digital signal DTrepresents the ideal response of the receiver chain to the particulartest input signal. In one example, the reference signal DT may be loadedfrom the attached memory 126 of the microcontroller 108. Themicrocontroller, in turn, may initiate the transfer of the referencesignal DT to the BITE module in response to a command issued from thebaseband processor 124 which may specify, for example, thetelecommunication standard for which the receiver chain is being tested.Deviations from the ideal performance may result in the generation ofcorrection response that is loaded into a digital register (notillustrated) and communicated to the various analog blocks via a digitalbus, as discussed further below.

As discussed above, a test signal having precisely controlledparameters, such as center frequency and power levels, can be generatedby the transmitter. When this signal is transformed to the frequencydomain, it may have a precisely known frequency characteristic that maybe used to evaluate components of the transceiver. Referring to FIG. 25,there is illustrated one example of a dual tone analog test signal(illustrated in the frequency domain) that may be generated by thetransmitter 310 and supplied to the analog receiver chain on line 292.The test input signal may comprise two closely spaced harmonic signals(represented by lines 294 a, 294 b) that may have the same amplitude A1,or different amplitudes A1 and A2, and are located at frequencies f1 andf2. In one example, the tones 294 a, 294 b may have a random phaserelationship and may be separated by approximately one channel width forthe selected standard of interest. It is to be appreciated that the testinput signal is not limited to the example given in FIG. 25 and may havea different structure. For example, A2 may be smaller rather than largerthan A1. In one example, the test input signal may be generated bytransmitter 310 in response to a digital input supplied by the datatable 302, which in turn may receive a control input from stored data inmemory 126 via microcontroller 108 (see FIG. 24). For example, the testsignal may be generated by an in-phase and quadrature single sidebandmodulator in the transmitter 310 and may be up-converted to a lower endof the frequency band to be tested by a phase locked local oscillatorthat is locked to a particular frequency referred to herein as f_(low).The resultant test input signal on line 292 may have two main frequencycomponents, namely f₁ and f₂, and may be applied via the switch 290 a(see FIG. 23) to the input of the programmable receiver chain.

When the test input signal is applied to the receiver chain, it isamplified, mixed, filtered, and digitized by the components of thereceiver chain, as discussed above. This process may produce an increasein amplitude of the original tones comprising the test input signal byamplification factors g1 and g2 which may determined by the settings ofthe analog receiver chain. Referring to FIG. 26, the amplified tones areillustrated by lines 316 a and 316 b in the frequency domain. Thesetones are generated by the DFT module 300 performing a discrete Fouriertransform on the received digitized signal to transform the sampledsignal into the frequency domain and allow analysis of the frequencycomponents (tones) of the received signal. In addition, due to thethird-order non-linearities present in any receiver components anddown-conversion to baseband, the process may cause generation ofadditional harmonic signals, for example harmonics of amplitudes B and Cat frequency locations 2f₁−f₂ and 2f₂-f₁ (lines 318 a, 318 b), as shownin FIG. 26. The amplitude and frequency locations of these harmonicsignals are directly related to the linearity behavior of the entireanalog receiver chain. Therefore, the BITE module can perform ananalysis of the analog receiver chain by monitoring the output of theADC 120, and its subsequent frequency domain transformation in the DFTblock 300. A detailed comparison between the digital output signal DOand the reference signal DT, allows an assessment of the receiver chain.

It should be apparent that different test signals with different inputfrequencies can be generated based on providing a different digitaloutput from data table 302. As a result, frequency range, frequencystability, gain and linearity can be tested. Gain at the lower end ofthe band may be determined by comparing the power in the tone at f₁ orf₂ with the power in the original tone of the test input signal(adjusted for the gain/loss of the internal up-conversion process).Linearity, in the form of third order intercept point (IP3) can bedetermined by calculating the IM3, namely, the difference in power of f₁and 2f₁-f_(2 or f) ₂ and 2f₂−f₁, and using the relationship:IP3 (dBm)=A (dBm)+IM3/2(dBc)where dBm denotes decibels with respect to milliwatts and dBc aredecibel of the carrier frequency, and A is the amplitude in thefrequency domain (i.e., power present in tone 294 a) of the originaltest input signal.

Additionally, if f_(low) is varied in discrete steps over the bandwidthof interest (beyond some excess bandwidth factor, nominally equal to theexpect center frequency production tolerance of the receiver) and thegain calculation is made at each step, knowledge of the frequencyresponse is developed. From this frequency response data, a goodestimate of center frequency and bandwidth of the receiver can be made.

According to one embodiment, a more sophisticated testing situation mayinvolve the generation of a test input signal that includes one or moremodulated symbols. Symbols are unique representations of a particularmodulation technique such as quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM),binary phase shift keying (BPSK), etc. Symbols may be generated in atransmitter, for example, the transmitter 310 of the BITE module, or thetransmitter chain of the RFIC (see FIG. 1). In one example, thesymbol(s) may be generated in response to a digital command provided by,for example, the data table 302 or microcontroller 108.

In one example, the test signal may be modulated using an in-phase (I)and quadrature (Q) modulator. The test signal may be amplitude,frequency or phase modulated. In one example, where no information iscontained in the amplitude of the signal (e.g., phase or frequencymodulations), a baseband or low frequency, shaped digital or analogsignal may be added into the phase locked loop 363 of FIG. 33, usuallybefore or after the loop filter 369. In another example, where someinformation may be contained in the amplitude of the test signal, an IQmodulator may be used to generate test signal, as shown in FIG. 35.Referring to FIG. 35, the signal generated by the voltage controlledoscillator (VCO) 366 may be fed through a 90-degree phase shifter 388 totwo mixers 390 q, 390 b. A modulation signal may be combined with thephase-shifted VCO signal in the mixers 390 a, 390 b. As shown in FIG.35, an I data stream (of the modulation signal) may be mixed in mixer390 a and a Q data stream (of the modulation signal) may be mixed inmixer 390 b. The I and Q data streams may be obtained from the memory126 (see FIG. 1) under control of the microcontroller 108 (see FIG. 1).The output signals from the mixers may be combined in a summer 392 togenerate the test signal f_(test). In one example, the power level ofthe signal f_(test) may be controlled via a variable gain amplifier 370as discussed in reference to FIG. 34.

Referring to FIG. 27, there is illustrated one example of aconstellation diagram generated from a simulation of the receiver chainillustrated in FIG. 23. As shown in FIG. 27, for each transmittedsymbol, both I and Q components can be represented as vectors.Specifically, FIG. 27 depicts two vectors (although it is to beappreciated that the constellation diagram may comprise a plurality ofvectors) representing symbols (S) identified by integer subscripts n andn+1 and located in the diagram at locations S_(In), S_(Qn) and S_(In+1),S_(Qn+1). The BITE module records the actual signal response via themonitor signal path 298, subjects the digital data to a discrete Fouriertransform operation, and records a digital output signal DO. Thisdigital output will provide the information I(t_(n)), Q(t_(n)) andI(t_(n+1)), Q(t_(n+1)), corresponding to the actually received symbols(S) labeled with subscripts n and n+1, illustrated in FIG. 27.

Referring again to FIG. 28, a next step in the process may be a comparemode 323. The purpose of the compare mode is to determine the amount oferror that exists in the current performance configuration when comparedto the desired response. Once the test mode is completed, the digitaloutput signal (Do) is provided from the DFT module 300 to the comparator304 to be compared with a reference digital signal DT. The referencedigital signal DT may be stored in the data table 302 and is related tothe telecommunication standard of interest. This reference digitalsignal may include a target center frequency, a target bandwidth for thesignal, a target gain and a target IP3. In addition to the targetvalues, each parameter may have an acceptable error bar associated withit. In one embodiment, these values may have been derived from astatistics-based reference design which implies that overall systemperformance compliance will occur when actual values are equal to thetarget values within the acceptable error bar.

In one embodiment, at each time increment t_(n), t_(n+1), the comparator304 compares the measured output of the analog chain (DO) against thereference signal (DT) to generate an error vector magnitude signal EVM.The time increments may be defined, for example, by the sampling rate ofthe digital output signal which may be derived from the master clockfrequency. According to one embodiment, the error vector magnitude (EVM)can be computed for each symbols based, for example, on the so-called“L2” norm, according to the formulas:EVM_(n) ={square root}{square root over (|I(t _(n) )−S _(In) | ² +|Q(t_(n) )−S _(Qn) | ² )}andEVM_(n+1) ={square root}{square root over (|I(t _(n+1) )−S _(In+1) | ²+|Q(t _(n+1) )−S _(Qn+1) | ² )}

However, it is to be appreciated that the invention is not limited tothe use of the L2 norm and other norms can be defined as well. Thecomparator 304 may monitor the entire constellation diagramrepresentation of the digital output signal DO provided by the DFTmodule 200 and the reference signal DT provided by the data table 302.The comparator checks for deviations between the signals DO and DT, thatis, whether or not DO=DT within some defined error tolerance threshold.Referring again to FIG. 24, if the comparator does not encounter adeviation (e.g., DO=DT within some tolerance), then branch Y is taken,which prompts the serial to parallel conversion circuit 308 to reissuethe content of the digital register that set the performance parametersfor the analog receiver chain. The serial to parallel conversion moduleconverts the serial digital signal received on line 312 into parallelsignal that may be applied to each of the components in the analogreceiver chain via the digital bus 114, as shown in FIG. 23. If thecomparator encounters a deviation, then branch N is taken. In this case,the comparator provides the EVM signal to the macro model 306. In oneexample, the compare mode may be complete once the current values anderrors have been calculated for at least one iteration of the test modeand these values have been sent to the macro model module 306.

Referring again to FIG. 28, a next process step may be a calculate mode326. The purpose of the Calculate Mode is to determine the next set ofregister values to be set based on the error between the measured andthe desired responses. In one embodiment, the purposes of the calculatemode may be primarily fulfilled by the macro model 306. In many cases,the receiver chain may have a complex transfer function that may bemodeled (in hardware or software) in order to determine the causes ofthe effects (e.g., deviations) seen in the compare mode. Therefore, themacro model 306 may contain a model of the receiver chain. In oneembodiment, the macro model computes, based on a mathematical algorithm,adjustments to correct the receiver chain performance. These adjustmentsmay comprise new values for a digital register, the contents of whichmay be issued to the various analog blocks via the serial to parallelconversion module 308, causing an adjustment of the functionality of oneor more of the components in the receiver chain. In one example, themacro model 306 may be implemented as a finite state machine.

For example, if a current compare mode test has determined that thecenter frequency of the programmable LNA 116 is low by 20%, the macromodel 306 may calculate the digital register values required to switchout some discrete parallel capacitance of the LC resonant circuit 136associated with the input matching of the LNA 116 to increase the centerfrequency of the LNA 116 by 20% according to the well-known Thompsonresonance formula:f_(center)=½π{square root}{square root over (LC)}

where L and C are the combined inductance and capacitance, respectively,presented by the LNA circuitry and the LC resonant circuit.

Alternatively, the center frequency of the LNA 116 may be retuned bydecreasing the total device width used in the LNAs input circuitry byimplementing a gate switching technique. Referring to FIG. 29, there isillustrated one embodiment of the LNA 116 including four interconnectedMOS transistors 328 a, 328 b, 328 c and 328 d. The LNA 116 also includesfour capacitors 330 a, 330 b, 330 c and 330 d that isolate the inputgate (G) of each MOS transistor from the binary digital inputs B0-B3.The individual gate contacts G1, G2, G3, G4 are combined via thecoupling capacitors to a total gate contact G. In one example, thecoupling capacitors may have a capacitance value of approximately 0.5pF. The digital connections B0-B3 couple the programmable digital bus110 (see FIG. 23) to the individual gate contacts of the four MOStransistors via resistors R0-R3, as shown in FIG. 29. In one example,these resistors may have a value of about 3 kΩ each. The individualdrains of each transistor are coupled together to provide an overalldrain (D) contact which provides the output of the LNA 116. Theindividual source contacts of each transistor are also coupled togetherto form an the overall source (S) contact which is used for setting theappropriate DC bias conditions.

According to one embodiment, each of the four MOS transistors 328 a, 328b, 328 c and 328 d may have a particular gate width, referred to hereinas W1 (for MOS transistor 328 a), W2 (for MOS transistor 328 b), W3 (forMOS transistor 328 c), and W4 (for MOS transistor 328 d). Generally, thegate width dimensions of the transistors may vary over a wide rangedepending on the circuit layout and the CMOS process technology used tofabricate the RFIC. In one example, the gate widths may vary in a rangefrom about 80 microns to about 700 microns. Because the gates of theindividual transistors are isolated (by the capacitors 330 a, 330 b, 330c and 330 d), the digital programming of either a logical “1” or logical“0” to each of the four binary inputs B0-B3 may produce an overalldevice behavior whose composite gate width can vary to be any of sixteendifferent sizes.

In one example, the signal voltage levels may be selected such that alogical “0” on any input B0-B3 implies a voltage below the transistor'sthreshold voltage, and a logical “1” implies a voltage above thetransistor's threshold voltage. Thus, if a logical “0” is applied to theindividual gate of any transistor 328 a-d, its function is turned off,whereas is a logical “1” is applied to a gate, the correspondingtransistor is turned on. The total gate width for the LNA may bedetermined by summing the individual gate widths of each transistor thatis turned on. Therefore, depending on the digital bit pattern thatcontrols the values of B0-B3, the overall gate width can be controlledto any one of sixteen values, as shown in Table 3 below. TABLE 3 Totalprogrammable device width based on four digital input signals. B3 B2 B1B0 Wtotal 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 W1 0 0 1 0 W2 0 0 1 1 W1 + W2 0 1 0 0 W3 0 10 1 W3 + W1 0 1 1 0 W3 + W2 0 1 1 1 W3 + W2 + W1 1 0 0 0 W4 1 0 0 1 W4 +W1 1 0 1 0 W4 + W2 1 0 1 1 W4 + W2 + W1 1 1 0 0 W4 + W3 1 1 0 1 W4 +W3 + W1 1 1 1 0 W4 + W3 + W2 1 1 1 1 W4 + W3 + W2 + W1

If each of W1, W2, W3 and W4 are different, Table 3 illustrates how theoverall device width of the LNA can be programmed to be any one ofsixteen values. However, it is to be appreciated that the invention isnot limited the example of four transistors with four gate widths andfour digital inputs as shown in the above table. Rather, the principlesif the invention may be applied to any number of transistors and digitalinput signals and the gate widths of different transistors may be thesame or different.

In addition, referring again to FIG. 29, a current source, 394 may beadjusted based on the applied digital pattern (and therefore, the numberof “on” transistors) such that an appropriate bias current may be set bysumming the individual currents to the sources of each activatedtransistor. For example, if bit pattern 1011 is applied, then biascurrent corresponding to the sum of the individual bias currents foreach of transistors 328 a, 328 b and 328 d may be supplied.

As is known to those skilled in the art, by decreasing or increasing thetotal gate width, the center frequency of the LNA can be increased ordecreased, respectively. The digital values applied to each of thebinary inputs B0-B3 may be controlled by the macro model to set anappropriate gate width based on a desired center frequency. In addition,the gain of the programmable LNA 116, and thus of the overall receiverchain can be adjusted by changing the bias current to the LNA, through abias control circuit and through control of the load impedance as shownwith the equation:A=−gm*Z 1where A is the gain, gm is the transconductance and Z1 is the loadimpedance. As discussed above, the load impedance may be controlled, forexample, through the use of a programmable LC resonant circuit 136.Controlling the impedance can, in turn, be used to modify or program thegain of the LNA.

In many cases, the linearity of the LNA 116 can have a large impact onthe linearity of the overall receiver chain. The parameters with themost direct effect on linearity for a given LNA topology are usuallybias current and load line. Referring to FIG. 27 if, for example, thelinearity is low and the gain is high, an adjustment can be made in boththe bias current and the load impedance to find a configuration thatwill be sufficient for both conditions. In one embodiment, the degree oflinearity and gain can be assessed, for example, by observing the signaloutput DO as discussed above with reference to FIG. 26. The smaller theinfluence of B and C with respect to g1A1 and g2A2, the better thelinearity of the LNA. Furthermore, by observing the output signals g1A1and g2A2 in relationship with the input signal strengths A1 and A2, onecan determine the gain g1 and g2 at frequencies f1 and f2.

In some embodiments, there may be complex interactions betweencomponents within the receiver chain which may not allow discreteparameter adjustment for each functional block in the receiver chain. Insuch cases, the macro model 306 may calculate a set of register valuesbased on a particular error function and its evolution over time. Thismay typically involve an iterative process adjustment process. Forexample, referring to FIG. 28, the test mode 322, compare mode 323 andcalculate modes 326 may be repeated until the digital output signal DOis within the defined tolerance of the reference signal DT.

As discussed above, in one embodiment the macro model 306 may beimplemented as a state machine. This provides a high degree of built-inflexibility for adjustment calculations. For example, factorycalibration can be used to generate the initial register values. Inaddition, register values can be updated once a real-time solution isfound such that the new values can be used the next time a configurationis initialized. In other words, the macro model 306 may be capable of atype of learning process to adapt to the performance of the radiotransceiver.

Once the digital output signal matches the reference signal DT withinacceptable tolerances, the BITE module 106 may enter a “hold” mode 327,see FIG. 28. The purpose of hold mode is to hold the registers at theircurrent values until the microcontroller (or baseband processor) issuesa next command to monitor or to change to a different telecommunicationstandard. In addition, the current register values may be written intothe memory 126 as the new initial values to be used next time theinitialize mode is called.

As discussed above, the BITE module 106 may monitor and adjust any orall of the components of the receiver chain 286, including the LNA 116,the mixer 280, the bandpass filter 282 and the baseband amplifier 284.It is to be appreciated that a similar process may apply for any of theother components of the receiver chain and for any programmablecomponents of the transmitter chain 324 (see FIG. 1). For example,referring to FIG. 36, there is illustrated a flow diagram of oneembodiment of a method for testing performance parameters of thetransmitter chain according to aspects of the invention. In a first step396, a particular telecommunication standard (e.g., CDMA, GSM, etc.) maybe selected for which the performance of the transmitter chain is to betested. The baseband processor may then generate an interrupt to themicrocontroller to cause the microcontroller to activate a test mode.The microcontroller 108 (see FIG. 1) may and load initial data valuesand calibration settings (step 398) that correspond to the selected modeto one or more components of the transmitter chain via the programmingbus 110 in a manner similar to that discussed above in reference to thereceiver chain. In one example, these initial values may be obtainedfrom the memory 126. The microcontroller may then activate the BITEmodule 106 and begin testing/evaluating one or more components of thetransmitter chain.

Referring to FIG. 37, there is illustrated a block diagram of oneembodiment of a BITE module 106 coupled to the transmitter chain of theRFIC according to aspects of the invention. When the microcontroller 108activates the BITE module 106, a control signal may also be sent toswitch 400 to interrupt the normal data stream I_(data) and Q_(data)being sent to the transmitter 102 on lines 402 a, 402 b, and insteadallow test data (I_(test) and Q_(test)) to be sent from the BITE moduleto the transmitter 102 on lines 404 a, 404 b, as shown (step 406 in FIG.36). The test data (I_(test) and Q_(test)) may be generated frominformation stored in the data table 302 in a manner similar to thatdiscussed above in reference to generating the test signal to test thereceiver chain. The test data may also be fed to the comparator 304. Inone example, the digital test may be filtered via a low pass filter 408and mixed with a local oscillator signal f_(lo) in mixers 410 a, 410 b.The local oscillator signal f_(lo) may be generated by the frequencysynthesizer 104 as discussed above. The local oscillator signal may alsobe fed to the mixers 410 a, 410 b via a programmable 90-degree phaseshifter 412 in order to generate appropriate in-phase and quadraturesignals. These resulting in-phase and quadrature signals from theoutputs of mixers 410 a and 410 be may be added together in a combiner414 to generate a composite output signal from the transmitter 102.

Under normal operation (i.e., the signals I_(data) and Q_(data) are fedto the transmitter), the output signal from the transmitter 102 would besent to the antenna module 174 (see FIG. 1) on line 416. In testingmode, the microcontroller may send a control signal to a switch 418 todecouple the output of the transmitter from the antenna and insteadcause the output signal from the transmitter (referred to herein asS_(meas) because it is a measured signal) to be fed to the BITE module106 on line 420 (step 426 in FIG. 36). In one example, the output signalfrom the transmitter may be amplified by a variable gain amplifier 422,and/or attenuated by a programmable attenuator 424 before being fed toeither the antenna or the BITE module.

According to one embodiment, the signal from the transmitter, S_(meas),may be down-converted by a down-converter 428 in the BITE module totranslate the radio frequency signal to a lower baseband frequency forprocessing (step 430 in FIG. 36). In one example, the down-converter 428may be include a standard mixer, as known to those skilled in the art.The down-converted signal may then be supplied to the Discrete FourierTransform (DFT) module 300 for digital processing. The DFT module 300may process the received signal and perform a Fourier transform on thesignal, as discussed above in reference to testing the receiver chain,to generate measured digital data streams Imeas and Qmeas (step 432 inFIG. 36) which represent in-phase and quadrature digital signalcomponents, respectively. These digital signals Imeas and Qmeas may befed to the comparator 304 where they can then be compared against thetest data I_(test) and Q_(test) (step 434 in FIG. 36) in a mannersimilar to that described above in reference to the receiver chain. Ifthe comparison of the between the measured data Imeas, Qmeas and thetest data (I_(test), Q_(test)) is within an acceptable margin of error,the BITE module may enter the “hold” mode, as discussed above. In thehold mode the digital registers may be locked at their current values(step 436 in FIG. 36) until the microcontroller (or baseband processor)issues a next command to monitor or to change to a differenttelecommunication standard. In addition, the current register values maybe written into the memory 126 (step 438 in FIG. 36) as the new initialvalues to be used the next time testing is initiated.

If the comparator detects a difference in the digital data, it mayinitiates the macro model 306 to execute a software algorithm thatcomputes adjustments, as discussed above. The macro model may computenew settings for transmitter chain components, such as, for example, theprogrammable attenuator 422, the VGA 424, or the frequency synthesizer104. The adjustment may result in, for example, a frequency and phaseshift due to a digital input to the programmable frequency synthesizer104, signal attenuation due to an input to the programmable attenuator424, or a variable gain adjustment due to an input to the programmableVGA 422. In addition, the macro model may signal that the test data maybe re-sent to the transmitter 102 for another iteration of testing (step440 in FIG. 36).

Having thus described several aspects of at least one embodiment of thisinvention, it is to be appreciated various alterations, modifications,and improvements will readily occur to those skilled in the art. Suchand other alterations, modifications, and improvements are intended tobe part of this disclosure and are intended to be within the scope ofthe invention. Accordingly, the foregoing description and drawings areby way of example only and are not intended to be limiting. The scope ofthe invention should be determined from proper construction of theappended claims, and their equivalents.

1. A frequency synthesizer implemented as a phase locked loop, thefrequency synthesizer comprising: a voltage controlled oscillator thatproduces a VCO frequency signal; a resonant circuit coupled to thevoltage controlled oscillator and adapted to produce a resonant tuningsignal to adjust a tuning range of the voltage controlled oscillator; afirst divider circuit coupled to the voltage controlled oscillator andpositioned in a forward loop path of the phase locked loop, the firstdivider circuit being adapted to produce a first frequency signal thatis a divided version of the VCO frequency signal; and a mixer thatreceives and mixes together the first frequency signal and the VCOfrequency signal to produce an output frequency signal.
 2. The frequencysynthesizer of claim 1, wherein the phase locked loop further comprises:a second divider circuit positioned in a feedback path of the phaselocked loop that receives the output frequency signal and is adapted toprovide a divided output signal; a phase detector coupled to the seconddivider circuit and adapted to receive the divided output signal andproduce a loop tuning signal; and a reference frequency source coupledto the phase detector and adapted to produce a reference frequencysignal; wherein the phase detector is adapted to produce the loop tuningsignal based on a comparison of the divided output signal and thereference frequency signal.
 3. The frequency synthesizer of claim 2,wherein the reference frequency source comprises a direct digitalsynthesizer including a reference crystal oscillator, and wherein areference center frequency of the reference frequency signal isdetermined by a control signal received by the direct synthesizer from amicrocontroller that is integrated in a semiconductor chip with thefrequency synthesizer.
 4. The frequency synthesizer of claim 2, whereina VCO center frequency of the VCO frequency signal is tuned based on acombination of the loop tuning signal and the resonant tuning signal. 5.The frequency synthesizer of claim 4, wherein the resonant circuit is anLC resonant circuit comprising: at least one transmission line having aninductance; a plurality of switchable capacitors configured to beswitched into and out of the tunable resonant circuit in response to afirst control signal; and at least one variable capacitor that can bevaried in response to a second control signal; wherein a center resonantfrequency of the resonant circuit is electronically tunable responsiveto the first and second control signals that control a first capacitancevalue of the plurality of switchable capacitors and a second capacitancevalue of the at least one variable capacitor.
 6. The frequencysynthesizer of claim 5, wherein a resonant center frequency of theresonant tuning signal is selected by controlling the first capacitancevalue such that a resonance of the resonant circuit falls within aselected frequency band, and by controlling the variable capacitor totune the resonant center frequency within the selected frequency band.7. The frequency synthesizer of claim 6, wherein the VCO centerfrequency is within the selected frequency band.
 8. A method ofgenerating a local oscillator frequency signal using a phase-lockedloop, the method comprising: providing a control signal to a voltagecontrolled oscillator (VCO) to cause the voltage controlled oscillatorto produce a VCO frequency signal; controlling a resonant circuit thatis coupled to the voltage controlled oscillator to produce a resonanttuning signal; controlling a tuning range of the voltage controlledoscillator with the resonant tuning signal; dividing the VCO frequencysignal with a first divider circuit positioned in a forward loop path ofthe phase-locked loop to produce a first frequency signal; and mixingthe first frequency signal with the VCO frequency signal to generate thelocal oscillator frequency signal.
 9. The method of claim 8, furthercomprising: dividing the local oscillator frequency signal with a seconddivider circuit positioned in a feedback path of the phase-locked loopto produce a divided local oscillator frequency signal; generating areference frequency signal; comparing the divided local oscillatorfrequency signal with the reference frequency signal to produce a looptuning signal.
 10. The method of claim 9, further comprising: tuning acenter fiequency of the VCO frequency signal based on a combination ofthe loop tuning signal and the resonant tuning signal.
 11. the method ofclaim 10, wherein the resonant circuit comprises a parallelly connectedcombination of an inductor, a plurality of switchable capacitors and atleast one variable capacitor, and wherein controlling the resonantcircuit to produce the resonant tuning signal comprises: switching intothe resonant circuit selected ones of the plurality of switchablecapacitors so as to select a frequency band for the resonant tuningsignal; and tuning the at least one variable capacitor so as to selectfor the resonant frequency signal a center frequency within thefrequency band.
 12. The method of claim 11, wherein the at least onevariable capacitor is a varactor diode and wherein tuning the at leastone variable capacitor includes controlling a bias voltage of the atleast one varactor diode.
 13. The method of claim 9, wherein generatingthe reference frequency signal comprises: controlling a direct digitalsynthesizer to produce the reference frequency signal having a referencecenter frequency determined in response to a reference control signal.14. A method of tuning a wideband local oscillator, the methodcomprising: providing an inductance, a first capacitance value and asecond capacitance value, all connected in parallel, to provide aresonant circuit; selecting the first capacitance value from a pluralityof switchable capacitors in response to a first control signal to tune aresonant frequency signal of the resonant circuit to a selectedfrequency band; selecting the second capacitance value in response to asecond control signal to tune the resonant frequency within the onefrequency band; and coupling the resonant frequency signal to a voltagecontrolled oscillator to tune the local oscillator.
 15. A wideband localoscillator comprising: a voltage controlled oscillator adapted toreceive a resonant tuning signal and to generate a local oscillatorsignal, the local oscillator signal having a center frequency determinedat least in part by the resonant tuning signal; a resonant circuitincluding an inductor, a first capacitance and a second capacitance allconnected in parallel, the resonant circuit being coupled to the voltagecontrolled oscillator and being adapted to generate the resonant tuningsignal; the first capacitance comprising a plurality of switchablecapacitors coupled to switches that allow selected ones of the pluralityof switchable capacitors to be connected in the resonant circuit,responsive to a capacitor control signal, thereby determining a value ofthe first capacitance; the second capacitance comprising at least onevaractor diode adapted to be tuned in response to a diode control signalto determine a value of the second capacitance; and wherein a frequencythe resonant tuning signal is determined based on the first capacitancevalue and the second capacitance value in combination with theinductance.
 15. The wideband local oscillator of claim 14, wherein theplurality of switchable capacitors are configured such that by switchinginto the resonant circuit the selected ones of the plurality ofswitchable capacitors, the first capacitance value is controlled so asto tune the frequency of the resonant tuning signal to one selectedfrequency band of a plurality of frequency bands.
 16. The wideband localoscillator of claim 15, wherein the at least one varactor diode isconfigured such that tuning of a center frequency of the resonantfrequency signal within the one selected frequency band is accomplishedby adjusting the second capacitance value.
 17. The wideband localoscillator of claim 16, wherein controlling which selected ones of theplurality of switchable capacitors are connected into the resonantcircuit allows selecting of different frequency bands of the pluralityof frequency bands, so as to allow tuning of the resonant tuning signalover the plurality of frequency bands and within one frequency band ofthe plurality of frequency bands.